Design of Machine Elements

(DOME)
MENG 375
Instructor Dr. Riaz Muhammad
[email protected]

Lecture 09
Springs
Chapter Outline
 Mechanical Springs
 Exert Force
 Provide flexibility
 Store or absorb energy
 Helical Spring
 Helical coil spring with round wire
 Equilibrium forces at cut section anywhere in the body of the
spring indicates direct shear and torsion

Fig. 10–1
 Stresses in Helical Springs
 Torsional shear and direct shear
 Additive (maximum) on inside fiber of
cross-section

 Substitute terms

Fig. 10–1b
 Stresses in Helical Springs

Factor out the torsional stress

 d   8FD 
  1   3 
 2 D   d 

Define Spring Index

Define Shear Stress Correction Factor

1 2C  1
Ks  1  
2C 2C
Maximum shear stress for helical spring
 Curvature Effect
 Stressconcentration type of effect on inner fiber due to curvature
 Can be ignored for static, ductile conditions due to localized cold-
working
 Can account for effect by replacing Ks with Wahl factor or
Bergsträsser factor which account for both direct shear and
curvature effect

 Cancelling the direct shear effect to isolate the curvature factor

 Deflection of Helical Springs
Use Castigliano’s method to relate force and deflection

Fig. 10–1a
Ends of Compression Springs

Fig. 10–2
Formulas for Compression Springs With Different Ends
Table 10–1

Na is the number of active coils

 Set Removal
 Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a
spring to induce useful residual stresses.
 The spring is made longer than needed, then compressed to solid
height, intentionally exceeding the yield strength.
 This operation sets the spring to the required final free length.
 Yielding induces residual stresses opposite in direction to those
induced in service.
 10 to 30 percent of the initial free length should be removed.
 Set removal is not recommended when springs are subject to
fatigue.
 Critical Deflection for Stability
 Buckling type of instability can occur in compression springs
when the deflection exceeds the critical deflection ycr

 λeff is the effective slenderness ratio

 is the end-condition constant, defined on the next slide

 C'1 and C'2 are elastic constants
 End-Condition Constant
 The  term in Eq. (10–11) is the end-condition constant.
 It accounts for the way in which the ends of the spring are
supported.
 Values are given in Table 10–2.

Table 10–2
 Absolute Stability
 Absolute stability occurs when, in Eq. (10–10),
C2 / eff
2
1

 This results in the condition for absolute stability

 For steels, this turns out to be

 Some Common Spring Steels
 Hard-drawn wire (0.60-0.70C)
◦ Cheapest general-purpose
◦ Use only where life, accuracy, and deflection are not too
important
 Oil-tempered wire (0.60-0.70C)

◦ General-purpose
◦ Heat treated for greater strength and uniformity of properties
◦ Often used for larger diameter spring wire
 Music wire (0.80-0.95C)

◦ Higher carbon for higher strength

◦ Best, toughest, and most widely used for small springs
◦ Good for fatigue
 Some Common Spring Steels
 Chrome-vanadium

◦ Popular alloy spring steel

◦ Higher strengths than plain carbon steels
◦ Good for fatigue, shock, and impact
 Chrome-silicon

◦ Good for high stresses, long fatigue life, and shock

 Strength of Spring Materials
 With small wire diameters, strength is a function of diameter.
 A graph of tensile strength vs. wire diameter is almost a straight
line on log-log scale.
 The equation of this line is

where A is the intercept and m is the slope.

 Values of A and m for common spring steels are given in Table
10–4.
Constants for Estimating Tensile Strength

Table 10–4
 Estimating Torsional Yield Strength
 Since helical springs experience shear stress, shear yield strength
is needed.
 If actual data is not available, estimate from tensile strength
 Assume yield strength is between 60-90% of tensile strength
0.6Sut  S sy  0.9 Sut
 Assume the distortion energy theory can be employed to relate
the shear strength to the normal strength.
Ssy = 0.577Sy
 This results in
Mechanical Properties of Some Spring Wires (Table 10–5)
Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses
Example 10–1
Example 10–1
Example 10–1
Example 10–1
Example 10–1
 Helical Compression Spring Design for Static Service
 Limit the design solution space by setting some practical limits
 Preferred range for spring index

 Preferred range for number of active coils

 Helical Compression Spring Design for Static Service
 To achieve best linearity of spring constant, preferred to limit
operating force to the central 75% of the force-deflection curve
between F = 0 and F = Fs.
 This limits the maximum operating force to Fmax ≤ 7/8 Fs
 Define fractional overrun to closure as ξ where

 This leads to

 Solving the outer equality for ξ, ξ = 1/7 = 0.143 0.15

 Thus, it is recommended that
 Summary of Recommended Design Conditions
 The
following design conditions are recommended for helical
compression spring design for static service

where ns is the factor of safety at solid height.

 Figure of Merit for High Volume Production
 For high volume production, the figure of merit (fom) may be the
cost of the wire.
 The fom would be proportional to the relative material cost,
weight density, and volume
Design Flowchart for Static Loading

Continue on next slide

Design Flowchart for Static Loading
Continued from previous slide
Design Flowchart for Static Loading
 Finding Spring Index for As-Wound Branch
 Inthe design flowchart, for the branch with free, as-wound
condition, the spring index is found as follows:
 From Eqs. (10–3) and (10–17),

 Let

 Substituting (b) and (c) into (a) yields a quadratic in C.

Example 10–2
Example 10–2
Example 10–2
Example 10–2
Example 10–2
Example 10–3
Example 10–3
Example 10–3
Example 10–3
Example 10–3
Example 10–3
Example 10–3
 Critical Frequency of Helical Springs
 When one end of a spring
is displaced rapidly, a
wave called a spring surge
travels down the spring.
 If the other end is fixed,
the wave can reflect back.
 If the wave frequency is
near the natural frequency
of the spring, resonance
may occur resulting in
extremely high stresses.
 Catastrophic failure may
Fig. 10–4
occur, as shown in this
valve-spring from an over-
revved engine.
 Critical Frequency of Helical Springs

 The governing equation is the wave equation

 Critical Frequency of Helical Springs
 The solution to this equation is harmonic and depends on the given
physical properties as well as the end conditions.
 The harmonic, natural, frequencies for a spring placed between
two flat and parallel plates, in radians per second, are

 In cycles per second, or hertz,

 With one end against a flat plate and the other end free,
 Critical Frequency of Helical Springs
 The weight of a helical spring is

 The fundamental critical frequency should be greater than 15 to

20 times the frequency of the force or motion of the spring.
 If necessary, redesign the spring to increase k or decrease W.
 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs
 Zimmerli found that size, material, and tensile strength have no
effect on the endurance limits of spring steels in sizes under 3/8
in (10 mm).
 Testing found the endurance strength components for infinite life
to be

 These constant values are used with Gerber or Goodman failure

criteria to find the endurance limit.
 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs
 For
example, with an unpeened spring with Ssu = 211.5 kpsi, the
Gerber ordinate intercept for shear, from Eq. (6-42), is

 For the Goodman criterion, it would be Sse = 47.3 kpsi.

 Each possible wire size would change the endurance limit since
Ssu is a function of wire size.
 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs
 It has been found that for polished, notch-free, cylindrical
specimens subjected to torsional shear stress, the maximum
alternating stress that may be imposed is constant and
independent of the mean stress.
 Many compression springs approach these conditions.
 This failure criterion is known as the Sines failure criterion.
 Torsional Modulus of Rupture
 The torsional modulus of rupture Ssu will be needed for the
fatigue diagram.
 Lacking test data, the recommended value is
 Stresses for Fatigue Loading
 From the standard approach, the alternating and midrange forces
are

 The alternating and midrange stresses are

Example 10–4
Example 10–4
Example 10–4
Example 10–4
Example 10–4
Example 10–4
Example 10–4
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
Example 10–5
 Extension Springs
 Extension springs are similar to compression springs within the
body of the spring.
 To apply tensile loads, hooks are needed at the ends of the
springs.
 Some common hook types:

Fig. 10–5
 Stress in the Hook
 In a typical hook, a critical stress location is at point A, where
there is bending and axial loading.

 (K)A is a bending stress-correction factor for curvature

Fig. 10–6
 Stress in the Hook
 Another potentially critical stress location is at point B, where
there is primarily torsion.

 (K)B is a stress-correction factor for curvature.

Fig. 10–6
 An Alternate Hook Design
 This hook design reduces the coil diameter at point A.

Fig. 10–6
 Close-wound Extension Springs
 Extension springs are often made with coils in contact with one
another, called close-wound.
 Including some initial tension in close-wound springs helps hold
the free length more accurately.
 The load-deflection curve is offset by this initial tension Fi

Fig. 10–7
 Terminology of Extension Spring Dimensions
 The free length is measured inside the end hooks.

 Thehooks contribute to the spring rate. This can be handled by

obtaining an equivalent number of active coils.

Fig. 10–7
 Initial Tension in Close-Wound Springs
 Initialtension is created
by twisting the wire as it
is wound onto a mandrel.
 When removed from the
mandrel, the initial
tension is locked in
because the spring cannot
get any shorter.
 The amount of initial
tension that can routinely
be incorporated is shown.
 The two curves bounding
the preferred range is
given by Fig. 10–7c
 Guidelines for Maximum Allowable Stresses
 Recommended maximum allowable stresses, corrected for
curvature effect, for static applications is given in Table 10–7.
Table 10–7
Example 10–6
Example 10–6
Example 10–6
Example 10–6
Example 10–6
Example 10–6
Example 10–7
Example 10–7
Example 10–7
Example 10–7
Example 10–7
 Helical Coil Torsion Springs
 Helical coil springs
can be loaded with
torsional end loads.
 Special ends are used
to allow a force to be
applied at a distance
from the coil axis.
 Usually used over a
rod to maintain
alignment and provide
buckling resistance.

Fig. 10–8
 End Locations of Torsion Springs
 Terminology for locating relative positions of ends is shown.
 The initial unloaded partial turn in the coil body is given by

 The number of body turns Nb will be the full turns plus the initial
partial turn.

Fig. 10–9
 End Locations of Torsion Springs
 Commercial tolerances on relative end positions is given in Table
10–9
 Stress in Torsion Springs
 The coil of a torsion spring experiences bending stress (despite the
name of the spring).
 Including a stress-correction factor, the stress in the coil can be
represented by

 The stress-correction factor at inner and outer fibers has been

found analytically for round wire to be

 Ki is always larger, giving the highest stress at the inner fiber.

 With a bending moment of M = Fr, for round wire the bending
stress is
 Spring Rate for Torsion Springs
 Angular deflection is commonly expressed in both radians and
revolutions (turns).
 If a term contains revolutions, the variable will be expressed with a
prime sign.
 The spring rate, if linear, is

where moment M can be expressed as Fl or Fr.

 Deflection in the Body of Torsion Springs
 Use Castigliano’s method to find the deflection in radians in the
body of a torsion spring.

 Let M = Fl = Fr, and integrate over the length of the body-coil

wire. The force F will deflect through a distance r.

 Using I for round wire, and solving for ,

 Deflection in the Ends of Torsion Springs
 The deflection in the ends of the spring must be accounted for.
 The angle subtended by the end deflection is obtained from
standard cantilever beam approach.
 Deflection in Torsion Springs
 The total angular deflection is obtained by combining the body
deflection and the end deflection.
 With end lengths of l1 and l2, combining the two deflections
previously obtained gives,
 Equivalent Active Turns
 Theequivalent number of active turns, including the effect of the
ends, is
 Spring Rate in Torsion Springs
 The spring rate, in torque per radian

 The spring rate, in torque per turn

 To compensate for the effect of friction between the coils and an

arbor, tests show that the 10.2 should be increased to 10.8.

 Expressing Eq. (10–47) in revolutions, and applying the same

correction for friction, gives the total angular deflection as
 Decrease of Inside Diameter
 A torsion spring under load will experience a change in coil
diameter.
 If the spring is over a pin, the inside diameter of the coil must not
be allowed to decrease to the pin diameter.
 The angular deflection of the body of the coil, extracted from the
total deflection in Eq. (10–52), is

 The new helix diameter D' of a deflected coil is

 The new inside diameter is

 Decrease of Inside Diameter
 The diametral clearance  between the body coil and the pin of
diameter Dp is

 Solving for Nb,

 This gives the number of body turns necessary to assure a

specified diametral clearance.
 Static Strength for Torsion Springs
 Toobtain normal yield strengths for spring wires loaded in
bending, divide values given for torsion in Table 10–6 by 0.577
(distortion energy theory). This gives
 Fatigue Strength for Torsion Springs
 The Sines method and Zimmerli data were only for torsional
stress, so are not applicable.
 Lacking better data for endurance limit in bending, use Table 10–
10, from Associated Spring for torsion springs with repeated
load, to obtain recommended maximum bending stress Sr.
 Fatigue Strength for Torsion Springs
 Next, apply the Gerber criterion to obtain the endurance limit.
 Note that repeated loading is assumed.

 This accounts for corrections for size, surface finish, and type of
loading, but not for temperature or miscellaneous effects.
 Fatigue Factor of Safety for Torsion Springs
 Applying the Gerber criterion as usual from Table 6–7, with the
slope of the load line r = Ma/Mm,

 Or, finding nf directly using Table 6–7,

Example 10–8

Fig. 10–10
Example 10–8
Example 10–8
Example 10–8
Example 10–8
Example 10–8
Example 10–8
 Belleville Springs
 The Belleville
spring is a coned-
disk spring with
unique properties
 It has a non-linear
spring constant
 With h/t ≥ 2.83, the
S curve can be
useful for snap-
acting mechanisms
 For 1.41≤ h/t ≤ 2.1
the flat central
portion provides
constant load for a
considerable
Fig. 10–11
deflection range
 Constant-Force Springs
 The extension spring shown is made of slightly curved strip steel,
not flat.
 The fore required to uncoil it remains constant.
 Known as a constant-force spring.

Fig. 10–12
 Conical Spring
 A conical spring is wound in the shape of a cone.
 Most are compression springs, made with round wire.
 The principal advantage is that the solid height is only a single
wire diameter.
 Volute Spring
 A volute spring is a conical spring made from a wide, thin strip, or
“flat”, of material wound on the flat so that the coils fit inside one
another.
 Since the coils do not stack on each other, the solid height is the width
of the strip.
 A variable-spring scale is obtained by permitting the coils to contact the
support.
 As deflection increases (in compression), the number of active coils
decreases.

Fig. 10–13a
 Constant-Stress Cantilever Spring
 A uniform-section cantilever spring made
from flat stock has stress which is
proportional to the distance x.

 Itis often economical to proportion the

width b to obtain uniform stress,
independent of x.
Fig. 10–13b
 Constant-Stress Cantilever Spring
 Fora rectangular section, I/c = bh2/6.
 Combining with Eq. (a),

 Solving for b,

 Since b is linearly related to x, the width bo at Fig. 10–13b

the base is
 Constant-Stress Cantilever Spring
 Apply Castigliano’s method to obtain
deflection and spring constant equations.
 The width is a function of x,

 Integrating
Castigliano’s deflection equation
with M and I both functions of x,

Fig. 10–13b

 Thus, the spring constant, k = F/y, is