L09-2 - Integration Schemes

Integration Schemes
RMIT Classification: Trusted
Local coordinate systems
Introduced quad 2D elements

  1   1
 1 4 3
y 3
  1 
4   1

2
1  1 1   1 2
  1 x
Element in Global Coordinates Element in Local Coordinates
 km   t  wi det J i   BT  D B i
nip
i 1
Solved with Gaussian Quad.
Integration Schemes
Last Class Review
Gaussian Quadrature minimises the error associated with

numerical integration. 
4 3
The error due to quadrature can only
be minimised in accordance with the  1 1  1 1
 ,   , 
order of the problem.  3 3  3 3

For example: a linear quad element only  1

1
, 
 1 1
 , 
requires a linear quadrature scheme
3 3
  3 3
to minimise the error.

1 2
In 2D, a linear quadrature scheme

requires 4 integration points. Fully Integrated
Integration Schemes
Reduced Integration Scheme
What about a lower-order integration scheme?

Reduced Integrated

4 3
 0,0 
1 2
Integration scheme order one less than the element order

Integration Schemes
What about a lower-order integration scheme?

Reduced Integration
ux ux
Change in width at Therefore strain & stress

integration point is are present, and there is
detected.  0,0 resistance to deformation.
ux ux
Compression/tension is represented identically to a fully integrated

element.
Integration Schemes
Let’s look at bending the reduce integration element.

In pure bending, the upper and lower nodes displace equal an
opposite amounts
No change in length is No strain or stress are

observed at the detected in the element.
integration point either This deformation requires
vertically or horizontally. zero applied force!
HOURGLASSING
Integration Schemes
Hourglassing
Hourglassing is also known as a zero-energy mode shapes.

Often present due to point loads, or in dynamic simulations.
There presence is will often spread throughout a mesh as the

hourglass shape is compatibly symmetric and can tessellate and
will propagate.
Integration Schemes
Hourglass Control
How can hourglassing be combated?
More elements in Greatly increases

the direction of DoF and
bending. computational cost.
This can also lead to elements with high aspect ratios

(width/height), which results in poorly conditioned stiffness
matrices and poor strain resolution.
Integration Schemes
Hourglass Control
As hourglassing requires no loads, only very small resistances are

required to remove hourglass shapes.
Very small spring Hourglass mode shapes

stiffness are added into now require force to
the element stiffness generate, although that
matrix. force is non-physical
and requires energy.
Integration Schemes
Hourglass Control
As hourglass requires no loads, only very small resistances are

required to remove hourglass shapes.
Integration Schemes
Fully Integrated Linear Elements
What occurs when a fully integrated element is bent.

In pure bending, the upper and lower nodes displace equal an
opposite amounts
As lines between
integration points is not
Horizontal deformation is orthogonal, shear is
detected at integration detected. This is non-
points, hence physical, and purely due
hourglassing is resisted. to the element type
 90
SHEAR LOCKING
Integration Schemes
Fully Integrated Linear Elements
SHEAR LOCKING
Results in overly stiff behaviour in bending.
Strain energy is exerted in the non-physical shear
strain of the element, rather than bending strains.
Effect is larger than that of hourglass control, as
shear locking stiffness is similar order of
element stiffness.
 90
Integration Schemes
Quadratic Elements
As quadratic elements have second order functions of

displacement with position, bending strains are properly observed
for both reduced and fully integrated schemes.
No change in length of line

∴ εy = 0
Normals remain orthogonal

∴ γxy = 0
Fully integrated quadratics will have a

more accurate approximation of the
stiffness matrix than reduced integration
elements for non-regular shapes.
Integration Schemes
Incompatible Mode Elements
Incompatible mode element are first-order elements with a modified

formulation to assist in modelling element bending.
εx, εy γxy
εx, εy γxy εx, εy γxy
Similar to
Accurate linear Inaccurate
elements
Similar results to quadratic elements with regular meshes, low-distortion
elements, though significantly computationally cheaper.
Adds in an “incompatible mode” shape function to each node, which assist in
modelling bending behaviour.
Integration Schemes
Bending Summary
Integration Schemes
Meshing Tips
Higher resolutions of geometry and the stress field is required in

areas of high stress gradient (not necessarily high stress values).
High stress gradients typically occur at stress raisers.
Quadratic (second order)
elements will out perform first-
order elements in areas of high
stress gradients.
Reduced integration 2nd order
elements will be more
computationally efficient that
fully integrated elements and
provide near identical results.
Integration Schemes
Meshing Tips
The mid-span node of second order elements can be utilised to

approximate curved geometry (n.b. quadratic approximation).
As such curved edges and rounded features modelled with quadratic

elements require fewer elements than with linear elements.
Integration Schemes
Element Shape
It is ideal to have elements which are regular and appear

undistorted from their ideal shape
Ideal Reasonable Poor
Less accurate when shape is distorted and irregular (less regular

stiffness matrices and inaccurate Gaussian Quadrature).
Integration Schemes
Element Distortion
Undistorted elements will perform more accurately than distorted

elements
Poor
High
Aspect
Skewness
Ratio
90
 90
Undistorted Distorted
First-order quads and second-order triangular elements are less
sensitive to distortions.
Integration Schemes
Element Order Summary

Integration Schemes
Stress Raiser Example
Low-distortion, second order, reduced integration quadrilateral

(and hexahedral) elements can provide high accuracy in stress
concentrations even at relatively coarse sizes.
Quadrilateral Element
Example Problem
1.5
 
2
4
 
y 1.5
1
 
0.5
2
 
0.1
x
 1 1
Find the strain displacement matrix at  ,    , 
 3 3

L09-2 - Integration Schemes

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Integration Schemes

RMIT Classification: Trusted

Local coordinate systems

Introduced quad 2D elements

Last Class Review

Gaussian Quadrature minimises the error associated with

to minimise the error.

In 2D, a linear quadrature scheme

Reduced Integration Scheme

What about a lower-order integration scheme?

Integration scheme order one less than the element order

Reduced Integration Scheme

What about a lower-order integration scheme?

Change in width at Therefore strain & stress

Compression/tension is represented identically to a fully integrated

Reduced Integration Scheme

Let’s look at bending the reduce integration element.

No change in length is No strain or stress are

Hourglassing is also known as a zero-energy mode shapes.

There presence is will often spread throughout a mesh as the

How can hourglassing be combated?

More elements in Greatly increases

This can also lead to elements with high aspect ratios

As hourglassing requires no loads, only very small resistances are

Very small spring Hourglass mode shapes

As hourglass requires no loads, only very small resistances are

Fully Integrated Linear Elements

What occurs when a fully integrated element is bent.

Fully Integrated Linear Elements

As quadratic elements have second order functions of

No change in length of line

Normals remain orthogonal

Fully integrated quadratics will have a

Incompatible Mode Elements

Incompatible mode element are first-order elements with a modified

Higher resolutions of geometry and the stress field is required in

The mid-span node of second order elements can be utilised to

As such curved edges and rounded features modelled with quadratic

It is ideal to have elements which are regular and appear

Ideal Reasonable Poor

Less accurate when shape is distorted and irregular (less regular

Undistorted elements will perform more accurately than distorted

Element Order Summary

Stress Raiser Example

Low-distortion, second order, reduced integration quadrilateral

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