METALS

Maj Dr. Jawed

 Defects in Painting
1. Cracking
Cracks extending throughout the thickness
of paint are caused by improper seasoning
of painted wood, excessive use of drier or
application of too many coats resulting an
excessive thickness of paint. It results in
scaling of paint.
2. Crazing and crocodiling
Use of too much oil, use of impure oil
and insufficient drying of undercoat may
cause hair cracks in top coat.

If these hair cracks enclose small areas

then the defect is known as crazing,
however, if the areas enclosed are large
then the defect is known a crocodiling.
3. Blistering and peeling.
Exposure of paints, rich in oil, to strong
sunshine causes blisters.
Blisters are also caused if oil or grease is
left on surface to be painted.
Painting a surface with moisture present on
surface or in pores of wood causes
peeling.
• Runs and Sage.
Application of too thick or slow drying paint,
painting over a glossy surface, use of excessive
drier or excessive humidity and change of
temperatures during drying are the usual
causes of the defect.
• Chalking.
Use of insufficient oil in priming coat causes the
paint to rub off with hands or clothes (the defect
being known as chalking).
• Washing off
Use of pigments soluble in water causes the
deposit of dissolved matter at lower edges
forming streaks.

• Dull Appearance.
It is caused by use of excessive drier or on
the paint becoming old.
Slow drying.
Use of inferior or old oils, painting over damp
surfaces or during unfavorable weather
conditions causes this defect.
Yellow of White paint.
For indoor paintings where gloss is desired,
white enamel should be used otherwise
minimum linseed oil, which has a yellow tint
and does not bleach unless exposed to
sunshine, should be used.
METALS

Maj Dr. Jawed

 METALS
• Metals and their alloys are the backbone of all
engineering projects and products. Various
metals are used in one form or the other.
• Metals are found as compounds like oxides,
carbonates, phosphates and sulphides etc. in
nature.
• These compounds, known as ores, are treated
to remove the impurities and get the metal.
All metals used for engineering purpose are

classified into tow categories.

(i) Ferrous metals, wherein iron is the main

constituent, and

(ii) Non-Ferous metals, wherein iron is not

the main constituent.

Common ferrous metals in use are – cast
iron, wrought iron and different forms of
steel.

The non-ferrous metals in common use

are – aluminum, copper, zinc, lead and tin
etc.
 Occurrence of Iron
• Iron is never available pure in nature.
• It has to be extracted in the form of pig iron
from the various iron ores.
• Pig iron is the crudest and Wrought iron is the
purest form of iron.
• All the various forms of iron and steel are then
obtained by suitably purifying and adjusting the
composition of pig iron.
The ores form which iron is extracted are:
1. Magnetite : (Fe3 O4). It contains 70 to 75% iron.

2. Haematite : (Fe2 O3). It has about 70% iron.

3. Iron pyrites : (FeS2). It contains 47% iron but is not

preferred because of higher sulphur content which
makes it brittle.

4. Siderite : (Fe CO3). it contains 40% iron.

 PIG IRON

• To remove impurities form the iron ore

carbon and flux are added while melting it.
• The refined product so obtained is the
crudest form of iron is called pig iron.
• It is cast into rough bars called pigs.
 Properties.
• It is hard and brittle as such it is neither
ductile nor malleable.
• It is difficult to bend.
• It melts easily. The fusion temperature
1200o C.
• It can be hardened but not tempered.
• Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the
extent to which materials can be deformed plastically
without fracture.
• In materials science, ductility specifically refers to a
material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a
wire. Malleability, a similar concept, refers to a material's
ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by
hammering or rolling. Ductility and malleability do not always
correlate with each other; for instance, gold is both ductile
and malleable, but lead is only malleable.[1] Commonly, the
term "ductility" is used to refer to both concepts, as they are
very similar.
• It can not be magnetised.
• It has very high compressive strength
but is very weak in tension and shear.
• It does not rust.
• It cannot be welded or riveted.
• Compressive strength is the capacity of a
material to withstand axially directed
pushing forces. When the limit of
compressive strength is reached, materials
are crushed.
• When a specimen of material is loaded in
such a way that it extends it is said to be in
tension. On the other hand if the material
compresses and shortens it is said to be in
compression
Uses.
• Cast iron, Wrought iron and Mild steel are
obtained by refining the pig iron.
• Because of its high compressive strength
it is used in columns, base plates, door
brackets, wheels and pipe work.
 CAST IRON
• Pig iron is remelted with lime stone and coke
and poured into moulds of desired shapes and
sizes to get purer product known as cast iron.
• Moulding remelted pig iron reduces impurities
and gives a more uniform product than could
be had by directly moulding the pig iron in its
initial molten state.
• Carbon contents in cast iron vary from 2.0% to
4.5%.
 Properties
• Its structure is coarse, crystalline and
fibrous.
• Freshly fractured surface has grey, white or
mottled appearance in case of Grey Cast
Iron, White Cast Iron and Mottled Cast Iron
respectively.
• It is brittle.
• It can not withstand shocks and impacts.
• It can not be welded or riveted.
• It can not be magnetized.
• It can be hardened but can not be
tempered.
• It is neither malleable nor ductile.
• It does not rust.
• It becomes soft in saline water.
• It is fairly hard and can not be worked with a
hand file.
• It is strong in compression but weak in
tension and in shear.
• It lacks plasticity and as such it is unsuitable
for forging work
• Forging is the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces.

• Its melting point is 1200o C.

• Its specific gravity is 7.5.
 Uses.
• It is used for castings, rain water pipes,
gutters, gratings, railings, cisterns, man
hole covers and balustrades.
• Because of high compressive strength it is
used in making columns, supports for
heavy machinery, carriage wheels and
bed plates etc.
• It is basic material for the manufacture of
Wrought iron and Mild steel.
 WROUGHT IRON
Nearly all the carbon and other elements
in pig iron are oxidised and may be left
with 0.25 percent of carbon to obtained
wrought iron.
It is by far the purest form of iron in which
the total impurities do not exceed 0.5 per
cent.
 Properties……. WROUGHT IRON

• Its structure is fibrous and has silky luster.

• It is ductile and malleable.
• It is tough and can withstand shocks and
impacts better than cast iron.
• It can neither be hardened nor tempered.
• It can be forged and welded.
• At 900oC it becomes so soft that two
pieces can be joined by hammering. It
melts at 1500oC.
• It rusts easily.
• It is unaffected by saline water.
• It forms temporary magnets but can not
be permanently magnetised.
• It is nearly equally strong in tension,
compression and shear.
• It specific gravity is 7.25.
 Uses ……. WROUGHT IRON

• It is used for making roofing sheets;

corrugated sheets; rods; gas and water
pipes; boiler tubes; plain and ornamental
iron work such as grills, gates and railings;
window guard; gratings and electromagnets.
• Use of wrought iron is getting replaced by
mild steel.
 STEEL
• The essential difference between cast iron
and steel is in the amount of their carbon
contents.
• Steel goes on becoming harder and tougher
with the increase in its carbon contents.
• Up to a content of about 1.5 percent all the
carbon gets into chemical combination with
iron and none of it exists in its free state.
• If carbon contents increase beyond 1.5
percent then it does not combine with iron
and is present as free graphite.
• It is at this state that the metal falls in the
category of cast iron.
• For a material to be classified as steel
there should be no free graphite in its
composition. If there is any free graphite in
it then it falls in the category of CI.
 Classification of Steel
• Depending upon their carbon contents steel is
classified as mild steel in case the carbon content
is from 0.15 to 0.3 per cent.
• If the carbon content is less than 0.15 per cent
then the steel is known as dead mild steel.
• Steel with carbon content from 0.3 to 0.8 per cent
known as medium carbon steel
• whereas the one with carbon contents between
0.8 to 1.5 per cent is known as high carbon steel.
• High carbon steel with carbon percentage
over one per cent is also known as cast
steel or carbon tool steel.

• Steel that owe their properties to carbon

are called carbon steels whereas others
with distinct properties due to elements
other than carbon are termed as alloy
steels.
 RUSTING, CORROSION AND
PRESERVATION OF STEEL
• Rusting is just the oxidization of iron at the
surface.
• This process is activated by the presence of
moisture and carbon dioxide.
• On oxidation initially iron changes to ferrous-
bicarbonate, then to ferric-bicarbonate and
finally to hydrated ferric oxide. Even at the
final state of rust formation certain amounts
of ferrous and ferric carbonate are present.
• Atmospheric pollution too accelerates rust
formation.
• Corrosion is slow but steady eating away
of the metal and is consequence or
rusting.
 PRESERVATION
Rusting and corrosion can be avoided by not
letting moist air come in contact with the iron
surface. Following methods could gainfully
be adopted to minimize rusting and
corrosion.
Tarring.
• Iron is dipped in hot coal tar so that a film of
it sticks to the surface which protects the
surface from rusting and corrosion.
• Pipes or ends of poles to be embedded in
earth are usually given this protective
treatment.
• Painting. Paints, usually the lead paints,
are applied on the surface to be protected.
Exposed metal surfaces as in case of roof
trusses and bridge structure are given this
treatment which has to be invariably
repeated after regular intervals of time.
• Enamelling. Enamel provides better
and long lasting protection as compared to
painting. This treatment is given only to
smaller surfaces.
 Galvanizing.
• Depositing a fine film of zinc on the iron /
steel surface is termed as galvanizing.
• The surface to be galvanized is first
cleared of all foreign matter by giving it an
acid wash to be followed by a wash of
clean water.
• The surface is then dried and dipped in
molten Zinc. The fine film of Zinc that get
deposited protects the surface from
contact with atmosphere.
 Sheradising
• Surface to be treated is cleaned of all
foreign deposits by washing it with acid
solution and then with clean water.
• It is then dried and cover with zinc dust
and enclosed in steel boxes to be heated
in a furnace under controlled conditions.
• Molten zinc spreads over the whole
surface and on cooling forms a thin
protective layer.
• It gives better protection than galvanizing
 Tin Plating
• After cleaning the surface with acid wash
followed by wash with plain water and
drying, it is dipped in a bath of molten tin.
A protective covering of tin layer is left on
the surface
Electroplating
• By the process of electrolysis a thin film
of nickel, chromium, cadmium, copper or
zinc is deposited on the surface to be
protected. The surface to be protected is
made the cathode and the metal to be
deposited is made the anode
 COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF CAST IRON, WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL

S. No Property Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel

1. Composition It is crude form of iron containing 2-4% carbon It is the purest of iron It is mid-way between
containing up to 0.25 cast iron and wrought
carbon iron containing 0.5 to
1.5% carbon
2. Structure It has got a crystalline structure It has fibrous structure It has a granular
with a silky luster Structure
3. Specific gravity Its specific gravity varies from 7 to 7.5 Its specific gravity is Its specific gravity is
7.70
7.85
4. Melting Point Its meting point is about 1200oC. It contracts on It melts at about 1500oC Its melting point is
melting between 1300oC and
1400oC
5. Hardness It is quite hard and can be hardened by heating and It can not be hardened It can be hardened and
sudden cooling. or tempered tempered
6. Strength Its ultimate compressive strength is 6.3 to 7.1 Its ultimate Its ultimate
tonnes/sq cm and ultimate tensile strength 1.26 to compressive strength is compressive strength is
1.57 tonnes/sq cm. 2.0 tonnes/sq cm and 4.72 to 25.2 tonnes/sq
ultimate tensile strength cm and ultimate tensile
3.15 to 3.94 tonnes/sq strength is 5.51 to 11.02
cm. tonnes/sq cm
7. Reaction to It does not absorb shocks It can not stand sudden It absorbs shocks
Sudden shock heavy shocks