Programming with

Python
Presidential Initiative for
Artificial Intelligence & Computing
Introduction
Software
● A software is a program or set of programs written
using programming languages.
● Software is responsible for running hardware.
● All operating systems are also softwares.
● Operating system controls and runs all hardware.
Difference between Hardware and
Software
All the tangible All the intangible
components of a computer components of a computer
system are Hardware system are Software

● Keyboard ● All applications running

● Mouse ● Microsoft Office
● Monitor ● Chrome
● Hard Disk
● Ram
Compiler and Interpreter
 Difference between Compiler &
Interpreter
Translates program one statement at a time
Scans the entire program and translates it as a
whole into machine code.
It takes less amount of time to analyze the source
It takes large amount of time to analyze the
code but the overall execution time is slower
source code but the overall execution time is
No intermediate object code is generated, hence comparatively faster.
are memory efficient.
Generates intermediate object code which
Continues translating the program until the first further requires linking, hence requires more
error is met, in which case it stops. Hence memory.
debugging is easy.
It generates the error message only after
Programming language like Python, Ruby use scanning the whole program. Hence debugging is
interpreters. comparatively hard.

Programming language like C, C++ use compilers.

Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high
level, and interpreted programming
language. It supports the Object Oriented
Programming approach to develop
applications. It is simple and easy to learn
and provides lots of high-level data
structures.
Versions of There are two versions of
python are available to
Python install:

● Python Version 2
● Python Version 3
Why Python?
● Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac,
Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc).
● Python has a simple syntax similar to English.
● Python has syntax that allows developers to write
programs with fewer lines than some other
programming languages.
● Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-
oriented way, or a functional way.
Data Sciences and Artificial Intelligence
● Python is the fastest adoptable language in data
science and artificial intelligence.

● One of the most famous machine learning libraries

produced by Google, Tensorflow, is python based
Let’s Learn Python!
The Print Function
● The print function in Python is a function that outputs
to your console window whatever you say you want
to print out.
● On your first look, it might appear that the print
function is rather useless for programming, but it is
actually one of the most widely used functions in all
of python.
print(“Hello
Python”)
Syntax of the print function in Python
print(“My name is ABC”)

Outputs: My name is ABC

 print(123)

Outputs: 123
print(123 , ‘Hello PIAIC’)

Outputs: 123 Hello PIAIC

 Variables
- Variables for Strings
- Variables for Numbers
Variables for Strings
● A variable is something that holds a value that may
change.
● In simplest terms, a variable is just a box that you can
put stuff in.
● You can use variables to store all kinds of stuff, but
for now, we are just going to look at storing strings in
variables.
name= “Presidential Initiative for AI and
Computing”
print(name)
1. Creates a variable called name.
Assigns a string value “Presidential Initiative
for AI and Computing” in this variable.
Prints the string value stored inside this
variable.
Variables for Numbers
● Variables of numbers are a storage placeholder for
numbers (integer)

● We may also store float in variables.

 Lucky_number = 9
print(Lucky_number)

Outputs: 9
num_1 = 56.98
print(num_1)

Outputs: 56.98
 Math Operations

Adds values on Subtracts right Multiplies values Divides left hand

either side of the hand operand on either side of operand by right
operator. from left hand the operator. hand operand.
operand.
a + b = 30 a - b = -10 a * b = 200 b/a=2
 popular_number = 4
popular_number = 4 + 4
1. The variable popular_number holds a value 4.
Adds another integer 4 and assigns the answer
to the same variable.
“+” is plus operator
 Variable Naming,

Unfamilair Operators in Python

&
String Concaternation
Legal & Illegal Variable Names
● You can't enclose it in quotation marks.
● You can't have any spaces in it.
● It can't be a number or begin with a number.
● It can't be any of Python's reserved words, also known
as keywords—the special words that act as
programming instructions, like print.
and , as , print , while , for , in ,
break , if , else , elif , continue ,
pass , def , del , return , insert ,
pop , import , True , False ,
lambda and many more….
Python Keywords
Math Expressions: Unfamiliar Operators

% Modulo (remainder of division)

** Power operator
+var Unary Plus
-var Unary Minus
answer = 9 % 3
print(answer)

Outputs: 0
power = 2 ** 3
print(power)

Outputs: 8
 var1 = 4
var1 += 2
print(var1)
Outputs: 6
Math Expressions:
Eliminating
Ambiguity

BODMAS
Brackets
Order of Powers
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Subtraction
Concatenating Text Strings
● Concatenation, in the context of programming, is the
operation of joining two strings together. The
term"concatenation" literally means to merge two
things together.
● Also known as string concatenation.
● For instance, one string would be “hello” and the other
would be “world.” When you use concatenation to
combine them it becomes one string, or “hello world”.
first_string = “Hello”
second_string = “World”
full_word = first_string + “ ” +
second_string
print(full_word)
Outputs: Hello World
If Statements
● An if statement is a programming conditional
statement that, if proved true, performs a function or
displays information.
● If statements are used for decision making. They will
run the body of code only when the IF statement is
true.
● When you want to justify one condition while the other
condition is not true, then you use the "if statement".
num1 = 22
if num1 == 22:
print(“The number is 22”)

Outputs: The number is 22

num2 = 56.98
if num2 == 57.98:
print(“The number is 56.98”)

Outputs: The number is 56.98

Comparison Operators
● A comparison operator in python, also called python
relational operator, compares the values of two
operands and returns True or False based on
whether the condition is met.
● String comparison. You can use ( > , < , <= , <= , == , != )
to compare two strings. Python compares string
lexicographically i.e using ASCII value of the
characters.
Comparison Operators
> is greater than

< is less than

>= is greater than or equal to

<= is less than or equal to

== is equal to

!= is not equal to
animal = ‘cat’
if animal == ‘cat’:
print(“This is a cat”)

Outputs: This is a cat

number = 69
if number >= 50:
print(“Number is greater than 50”)

Outputs: Number is greater

than 50
Else & Elif Statements
● An else statement can be combined with an if
statement.
● An else statement contains the block of code that
executes if the conditional expression in the if
statement resolves to 0 or a FALSE value.
Else & Elif Statements
● The elif statement allows you to check multiple
expressions for TRUE and execute a block of code as
soon as one of the conditions evaluates to TRUE.
● Similar to the else, the elif statement is optional.
However, unlike else, for which there can be at most
one statement, there can be an arbitrary number of
elif statements following an if.
name = Python
if name == “python”:
print(“Your name is Shahzad”)
Else:
print(“I don’t know your name”)
Outputs: I don’t know your
name
donut_condition = ‘normal’
if donut_condition == ‘fresh’:
print(“Bring two donuts for me’)
elif donut_condition == ‘normal’:
print(‘Bring one donut for me’)
else:
print(‘come back….’)
Outputs: Bring one donut for
me
Testing Sets of Conditions
● The condition usually uses comparisons and
arithmetic expressions with variables. These
expressions are evaluated to the Boolean values True
or False. The statements for the decision taking are
called conditional statements, alternatively they are
also known as conditional expressions or conditional
constructs.
semester = 5
GPA = 3
if semester > 3 or GPA >= 2.5:
print(“All the best for your future’)
else:
print(‘Work hard!)
Outputs: All the best for your
future
If Statements Nested
● A nested if is an if statement that is the target of
another if statement. Nested if statements means an
if statement inside another if statement.
● The inner if block will only be executed if the outer if
block executes successfully.
age = 21
gender = ‘male’
if age >= 20:
if gender == ‘male’:
print(“You are allowed for the match”)
else:
print(“Only boys are allowed for the match”)
else:
print(‘You are under age…’)

Outputs: You are allowed for the match

Comments
● Comments are lines of text in your code that Python
ignores.
● Comments are for the human, not the machine.
● For example, a comment can explain a section of
code so another programmer can understand it.
● A comment can help you figure out your code when
you come back to it a month or a year later.
Types of Comments
● Single Line Comments
○ A single line can be commented by using a # symbol
● Paragraph/Multi-line Comments
○ A paragraph can be commented by using a triple
quote
# This is a comment.
# This is another comment.
# Python ignores these comments.
# The code that Python executes is next, on line
print(“This is not a comment…”)

Outputs: This is not a comment...

print(“This is not a comment…”)
“““this is a paragraph comment
paragraph can be lengthy or small”””
print(“This line also not comment”)

Outputs:
This is not a comment…
This line also not comment
User Input
● Input from Keyboard
● For this purpose, Python provides the function input().
input has an optional parameter, which is the prompt
string.
input_name = input(“Enter your name: ”)
input_age = input(“Enter your age: ”)
WHEN YOU RUN THIS CODE…….
Enter your name : Muhammad Shahzad Ahsan
Enter your age: 21
Outputs:
Muhammad Shahzad Ahsan
21
List
● A list is a data structure in Python that is a mutable,
or changeable, ordered sequence of elements.
● Each element or value that is inside of a list is called an
item.
● Just as strings are defined as characters between
quotes, lists are defined by having values between
square brackets [ ] and every value is seperated by ,
(comma).
friends = [‘Hamza’ , ‘Fatima’ , ‘Azhar’ , ‘Laiba’ , ‘Ali’ ,
‘Zoya’]
OR
numbers = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]
OR
list_float = [ 2.43 , 98.67 , 7.45 , 45.65]
OR
mix = [ ‘Ahsan’ , 2 , 4.56 , 6.87 , True , ‘Maham’ , 56
, False ]
List Operations
Common List Operations
● Access value
● Add new value at the end / tail of list
● Find the index of a value in list
● Slicing the elements from list
● Deleting and removing the elements from List
● Popping elements from the list
Accessing List Elements
List elements are accessed by providing the identifier and index of element
inside square brackets. For example in following snippet arr is an identifier
which points to a list.

arr = [1, True, “Pakistan”, 3.5, 5, 9]

To access the element at Position 3 which is “Pakistan”, we write:

print(arr[2])

Please note that to access the position 3 we have provided index 2, because
first element in Python List always starts with 0 (Zero) index.
DEMO
Adding Values in List
Python provides a function append() which adds the value at the end of List.
For example arr points to a list in following snippet

arr = [1, -3, 4.5, 32, 0.2, 4, 6]

To add a value 321 in the list we can do the following

arr.append(321)

Now if we check the elements in list arr we will get the following content

[1, -3, 4.5, 32, 0.2, 4, 6, 321]

DEMO
Searching / Finding a Value in List
Python provides a function index() which returns the index of the first
occurrence of the value. For example if arr points to a List

arr = [1, -3, 4.5, 32, 0.2, 4, 1]

To find a value 1 in the list we can do the following

arr.index(1)

This call will give the result 0 even you execute this line many times, the
reason is by default this function starts searching from index 0 and stops
when it finds first occurrence of the desired value.
Searching / Finding a Value in List
● What can we do to search the next element(s)?
● What if the desired value is not present in the List?
DEMO
Slicing the elements from List
Python provides a very handy feature if you want to take a partial piece of List. Note
that slicing operation copies elements from the original List hence this operation
returns a new List which is subset of the original List. Example syntax:

arr = [1, 4, 2, 78, 45, 23, 89]

print(arr[1: 4]) # outputs => [4, 2, 78]

inclusive exclusive

print(arr[-2: -1]) # outputs => [23]

print(arr[1: : 2]) # outputs => [4, 78, 23]

DEMO
Deleting and removing the value from List
● Although both are synonyms but there is a difference in Python how they
are used.
1) There are cases when we exactly know the index of value we need to
delete, in such cases we use del keyword to delete the element.
Example

arr = [1, 3, 2, 6, 4]

del arr[2]

Now if we check the contents of List arr we will get the following output

[1, 3, 6, 4]
Deleting and removing the value from List
2) In case if we know the value but we do not know the index of that
value in List, we call remove function over the List identifier and pass
the value to the function. Example

arr = [1, 3, 2, 6, 4]

arr.remove(2)

Now if we check the contents of List arr we will get the following output

[1, 3, 6, 4]
DEMO
Popping Elements from the List
Popping elements works in two ways

1. We know the index of the value to remove

2. We want to remove the element at the end / tail of List

Example:

arr = [1, 2, 4, 6, 7]
arr.pop() # will remove the value 7 from the end of List

arr.pop(2) # will remove the value 4 from the index 2 of List

Note what is the difference in del, remove and pop ?

DEMO
Tuples
Tuples
Tuples are just like Python list except that they are immutable. You can not add,
delete and change elements after the creation of Tuple instance.

tpl = (1, 4, 5, True)

print(tpl[1]) # outputs 4

tpl[1] = 10 # throws an Exception of type TypeError

del tl[1] # throws an Exception of type TypeError

DEMO
For Loop
For Loop
Python provides for loop to iterate over a sequence (e.g. a list, tuple and
dictionary) . This is very handy tool when you want to traverse all / few
elements of a sequence without having to worry about the number of elements
in the sequence. E.g

arr = [1, 3, 2, 6, 90, 34, 5]

for elem in arr:

print(elem)

The output of this snippet will print each element of the list in new line
DEMO
For Loop break keyword
There are situations where we want to terminate our loop even all the
elements are not yet traversed, e.g when finding a desired value and you found
it in middle of the sequence. In such cases you would want to terminate the
loop. Python provides the break keyword for this scenario.

arr = [1, 3, 2, 6, 67, 23, 45]

for elem in arr:

if elem == 6:

break # loop will be terminated as it encounters 6

DEMO
For Loop continue keyword
There are situations where we want to skip only current iteration of the loop.
Python provides continue keyword for such scenario.

arr = [1, 3, 2, 6, 67, 23, 45, 49]

for elem in arr:

if elem % 2 == 0:

continue # Loop will skip from here to next iteration

print(elem)
DEMO
Nested For Loop
Nested For Loop
When you have a sequence of sequences and you need to process elements
then we need to place loop inside a loop. Outer loop traverses the main
sequence and inner loop traverses on the inner sequence, which contains the
values

arr = [[1, 2, 3], [8, 19, 23], [-2, 3.5, 0]]

for seq in arr:

for elem in seq:

print(elem)
DEMO
Type Casting
Type Casting
As you are now already familiar with input function which is used for data
input. Also you must be familiar till now that input function returns that data
as String type. There are scenarios where you want your users to input the
value as number (int or float type) . Python provides functions to type cast
String types to numbers and numbers to String type.

operand = int(input(‘Enter the Number: ’))

operand = float(input(‘Enter Number in fractional value’))

print(‘You entered the value = ’ + str(operand))

DEMO
String Changing Case
String Changing Case
Python provides built in functions for scenarios a user wants to change the case
of string data.

str_data = “i AM A hUMAN”

print(str_data.lower()) #will output sentence in Lower case

print(str_data.upper()) #will output sentence in Capital case

print(str_data.title()) # will output sentence in title case

DEMO
Dictionary
Dictionary
Suppose you want to store the temperature records of different cities of
Pakistan for a certain date. Up till now you have studied about the lists and
tuples to store group of data. How would you store this information using prior
knowledge?
Dictionary
There could be many right implementations for this using list or tuples, but
none of them would be optimised for performance.

Python provides a data structure Dictionary for such cases. Dictionary in simple
words is a data structure which stores the key value pairs, e.g. if you want to
store the information about a student

student = {‘Name’: ‘Zaid’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Program’: ‘PIAIC’,

‘Age’: 42}

Please note that keys must be between single or double quotation if they are
string type, every pair is separated from other pairs by a comma, and every pair
of key value is separated by a colon.
Accessing information from Dictionary
student = {‘Name’: ‘Zaid’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Program’: ‘PIAIC’,
‘Age’: 42}

print(student[‘Name’])

If you try to access any key which is not present in dictionary will raise an
exception of type KeyError. Also beware of the fact that the Keys are case
sensitive, hence the following statement will throw an exception of type
KeyError

print(student[‘name’]) # Exception because name key does not

exist in student dictionary
Dictionary
This is not necessary that keys are always of type String, you can have number
type as keys also.

cities = {0: ‘Karachi’, 1: ‘Lahore’, 2: ‘Islamabad’, 3:

‘Hyderabad’, ‘name’: ‘Zaid’}

Please note that when keys are of type number they are not required to be
enclosed in single or double quotations.
DEMO
Dictionary adding keys
student = {‘Name’: ‘Zaid’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Program’: ‘PIAIC’,
‘Age’: 42}

In the dictionary student we don’t have FatherName key what if now I want
assign a value to this key in dictionary?

student[‘FatherName’] = ‘Bakar’

When we are assigning a value in a key which does not exists, Python creates
the key and assigns the value in the key. If key is already present the value is
overwritten.
DEMO
Dictionary removing items
student = {‘Name’: ‘Zaid’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Program’: ‘PIAIC’,
‘Age’: 42}

There are cases when you need to delete a key value pair from dictionary e.g.

del student[‘Program’]

print(student)
DEMO
Dictionary iterating items
Python provides 3 methods over dictionary object to iterate over dictionary
values, keys and key value pair

student = {‘Name’: ‘Zaid’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Program’: ‘PIAIC’,

‘Age’: 42}

for value in student.values():

print(value)

for key in student.keys():

print(key)
Dictionary iterating items Contd.
Python provides 3 methods over dictionary object to iterate over dictionary
values, keys and key value pair

for key, value in student.items():

print(key, value)
DEMO
Dictionary; what you can store
Any data structure we have studied so far we can store as value in
dictionary.e.g

● Dictionary can contain list

● Tuple
● Any type primitive or user defined (in future lectures we will study them as
classes)
● Dictionary, a dictionary can store an other dictionary as its value
● Or combination of these
DEMO
Dictionary; creating a list of dictionaries
To mimic a database we can create a list of dictionary, where list will be an in
memory database and each dictionary object will represent a unique record,
e.g.

students = []

students.append({‘Name’: ‘Ali’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Campus’:

‘PIAIC Campus 1’})

students.append({‘Name’: ‘Jinah’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Campus’:

‘PIAIC Campus 2’})
DEMO
Dictionary; Accessing info from list of
dictionaries
As we are already familiar that lists elements are accessed by their index, hence
to access any dictionary object you need its index to access it.

students = []

students.append({‘Name’: ‘Ali’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Campus’:

‘PIAIC Campus 1’})

students.append({‘Name’: ‘Jinah’, ‘Class’: ‘AI’, ‘Campus’:

‘PIAIC Campus 2’})

for student in students:

print(student)
DEMO
Dictionary; that holds a list
employee = {‘Name’: ‘Shams’, ‘ChildrenNames’: [‘Humairah’,
‘Abdul Rahman’]}

print(employee[‘ChildrenNames’][0])

print(employee[‘ChildrenNames’][1])

As we have studied that to access the value of a dictionary we provide key

name inside square brackets, in this case the value is a list so an extra pair of
square brackets is used to access the list element.
DEMO
Dictionary; that holds a dictionary
employee = {‘Name’: ‘Shams’, ‘Children’: {‘Humairah’: {‘Age’:
10, ‘Class’: ‘6th Standard’}, ‘Abdul Rahman’: {‘Age’: 8,
‘Class’: ‘4th Standard’}}}

print(employee[‘Children’][‘Humairah’])

print(employee[‘Children’][‘Abdul Rahman’][‘Age’])

In this snippet we have created a dictionary inside dictionary and child name is
used as keys. In first print statement we can observe that the first pair of
square brackets with employee returns a dictionary to access the elements of
that dictionary we provide another pair with key.
DEMO
Functions
Functions
Functions are a way to achieve the modularity and reusability in code. Before
moving forward we must need to know what are these:

Modularity: Modular programming is the process of subdividing a computer

program into separate sub-programs. A module can often be used in a variety
of applications and functions with other components of the system. (Reference:
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/25972/modular-programming)

Reusability: Using of already developed code according to our requirement

without writing from the scratch (Reference:
https://www.quora.com/What-is-code-reusability)
Functions
In python we define a function with a keyword def then function name after
the name of function we supply pair of parentheses and a colon sign, e.g.

def add():

number1 = int(input(‘Enter a value’))

number2 = int(input(‘Enter another value’))

print(number1 + number2)

Note that every statement which is part of function body is a level indented
more than the definition of function
Functions
In previous slide we have declared a function named add now we can call it as
many times and in any module as we want. To call the function we just need to
write the name of function followed by pair of parentheses, e.g.

add()
DEMO
Functions: Passing information positional
arguments
A generic function does not define any data it processes inside it hard-coded
instead it accepts the data when it is called and processes that data,e.g.

def add(number1, number2):

print(number1 + number2)

Now to call the function we need to pass two arguments and they are matched
according to their position in the function call, e.g. here value 3 will be assigned
in number1 while value 5 will be assigned to number2 variable

add(3, 5)
DEMO
Functions: Passing information keyword
arguments
def add(number1, number2):

print(number1 + number2)

There is another way to call same function that we pass the arguments with the
name of variable, this way position does not matter but the value is assigned to
matching name variable in function parameters, e.g.

add(number2 = 5, number1 = 3)
DEMO
Functions: Default value parameters
def add(number1 = 0, number2 = 0):

print(number1 + number2)

There are times when some parameter value are optional but still you need a
default value in case if someone does not provide the value to avoid any non
deterministic behaviors, e.g.

add(number2 = 5)
DEMO
Functions: Mixing positional and keyword
arguments
Be careful mixing positional and keyword arguments. Positional arguments
must come before keyword arguments. Keyword arguments don't have to line
up with parameters, but positional arguments must do.
DEMO
Functions: Dealing with an unknown number of
arguments
In some cases we can not actually guess how many arguments user would
pass when calling function so we need a parameter that can take all values
provided by the user.

def display_nums(first_num, second_num,*opt_nums):

print(first_num)
print(second_num)4
print(opt_nums)
-> Here we see a parameter with(*) , this parameter will deal with arbitrary
number
DEMO
 Functions: Passing information back
from them
Functions not only performs a given task when they are called. But a function may
also return some value to user. This returned value can be assigned, reused and be
modified then.
DEMO
 Using functions as variables
(which is what they really are)
Functions can be used as variables. This is done by using function call in
our expressions
DEMO
 Functions: Local vs. global variables
Local Variable are the variable defined inside the functions. There scope is
only inside the function. They are not accessible outside the function.

Global varaibles are the varaibles defined out side the function and can be
accessed and modified in and outside the function
DEMO
 Functions within functions
Right now we have learned how to call function. We can call a function inside
another function providing the required signature of the function.
DEMO
 While Loops
We have studied loops in ealrier lectures. There is another type of loops called
‘While Loops’

They work similar to for loops. But differ in the sense that it allows user to
terminate loop by setting flags.
DEMO
 Classes
Python is an “object-oriented programming
language.” This means that almost all the code
is implemented using a special construct called
classes.
Programmers use classes to keep related
things together. This is done using the
keyword “class,” which is a grouping of object-
What is a Class?
- A Class is a model

- A class is a blueprint(map) of anything

- A class is a template

- A class may also br defined as something that can be followed to

create objects and nstances

Objects
 -Car has a Color
-Car has make
-Car has model

-Car obj also has a color

-Car obj also has make
-Car obj also has model
 Writing a Class
Python uses a keyword “class” to define a class

Class Car():
# body of class Car
 What actually class holds??
A class may hold attributes (variables)

A class may hold behaviours (functions)

Example:

A car’s colour, model, and seating capacity are attributes

of car.

A car can run, stop, speed_up, speed_down are behaviours

of car
DEMO
 Classes: Creating an instance
Almost everything in Python is an object, with its
properties and methods.

Objects are made following its class means if an

objects belongs to a class it must have been following
the requirements set by the class
Classes: Creating an
instance
class Car():

# define a class body

# attributes and behaviours

# Creating abjects/instance of Car class

car1 = Car()

car2 = Car()
Demo
A complete example on classes & objects
Demo
 Data Files
In all the coding so far in this book, none of the data has been
preserved. We created variables, lists, dictionaries, and class instances
that containedinformation, but as soon as the computer was turned
off, all of it disappeared.

You know how to save a word processing document or spreadsheet,

but how do you save data processed by Python?
Reading Writing in an external file from
python Code

We can write in a text file by uisng a python function:

With open(“file_name.txt”,“mode”)
There are three modes:
Read, write, & append
 Writing to a text File
With open (“myFile.txt”, “w”) as file:

file.write(“This is my file”)

Note: If file does not exist ,“w” mode will create and
write in it.
Demo
 Reading from a text File
With open (“myFile.txt”, “r”) as file:

contents_of_file = file.read()

print(content)

Note: If file does not exist ,“r” mode will throw file not
found error
Demo
 Writing a file in append mode
With open (“myFile.txt”, “a”) as file:

file.write(“This text is written in append mode”)

Note: in “w” mode if we write in same file all previous

work will be overwrite. But append mode allows to
write further.
Demo
 Data Files in
r+, w+ mode
r+ mode allows read and write both in files

w+ mode allows read write both in files

 Modules
In the chapters dealing with functions, you learned how to define a function
and how to call it. The function definitions were in the same Python file as the
function calls. That is, they were in your main Python program. An alternative
is to store some or all functions in separate Python files. These files are called
modules. Like any Python file, a module has a filename extension of .py.

You can store functions, classes, and more in a module. Most commonly,
modules are used to store functions.
What's good about modules:
Write a function once, call it from any Python program.
Keep your main programs shorter and simpler to read.
Use code written by other people by importing their modules.
Demo
 Exceptions
Exceptions are run time errors.

Compile time error are syntax error

Excpetion Objects

Python uses special objects called exceptions to manage errors

that arise during a program’s execution.

Whenever an error occurs that makes Python unsure what to

do next, it creates an exception object.
 Handling Errors /Exception

Exceptions are handled with try - except blocks.

A try - except block asks Python to do something, but it also
tells Python what to do if an excep-tion is raised.
When you use try - except blocks, your programs will continue
running even if things start to go wrong.
 CSV Files
CSV files are text-only files that are simplified versions of a
spreadsheet or database.

"CSV" stands for Comma-Separated Values."

We can export Excel file as a CSV file.

The CSV file looks like this:

Year,Event,Winner

1995,Best-Kept Lawn,None

1999,Gobstones,Welch National

2006,World Cup,Burkina Faso

Each row of the spreadsheet is a separte line in the CSV

file.
 Reading, Wrting and appending in a CSV
file
# Reading a csv file

import csv

with open("competitions.csv") as f:

contents_of_file = csv.reader(f)
The contents of the CSV file returned by the csv.reader function aren't

useable yet. You have to loop through the data stored in contents_of_f,

line by line, adding each line to a list.

with open("competitions.csv") as f:

contents_of_f= csv.reader(f)

potter_competitions = []

for each_line in contents_of_f:

potter_competitions += each_line
# Writing to a CSV file
with open("whatever.csv", "w", newline="") as f:

data_handler = csv.writer(f, delimiter=",")

data_handler.writerow(["Year", "Event","Winner"])

data_handler.writerow(["1995", "Best-Kept Lawn","None"])

data_handler.writerow(["1999", "Gobstones","W Nationl"])

# Appending to a CSV file
with open("whatever.csv", "a", newline="") as f:

data_handler = csv.writer(f, delimiter=",")

data_handler.writerow(["Year", "Event","Winner"])

data_handler.writerow(["1995", "Best-Kept Lawn","None"])

data_handler.writerow(["1999", "Gobstones","W Nationl"])

 Writing Python List in JSON
import json
File
alphabet_letters = ["a", "b", "c"]

with open("alphabet_list.json", "w") as f:

json.dump(alphabet_letters, f)
 Writing Python Dictionary in
JSON File
customer_29876 = {"first name": "David","last name": "Elliott",

"address": "4803 Wellesley St.", }

with open("customer_29876.json", "w") as f:

json.dump(customer_29876, f)
 Reading Data from JsonFile
with open("customer_29876.json") as f:

customer_29876 = json.load(f)

print(customer_29876)

print(customer_29876["last name"])