Module 2

Research Design
NAVYA NINAN
Meaning
• A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study
that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data.
• It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study.
• Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and
analysis of data.
• Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the
research.
“Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collection and analyzing the needed
information.”
- William Zikmund

“Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of

investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research
questions and to control variance.”
- Kerlinger
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions.

The questions like,

• What the study is about? – It means what is the statement of
hypothesis put to test.
• What to observe? - This answers what objectives are set for study.
• What variables are to be observed in the sample.
• Why the study is made? - Every study has its own relevance and
meaning. The relevance conveys importance of study. This answers
on the applications of study undertaken.
• From whom to get relevant data? - This answer to this question
reveals sampling for study.
• When to study? - this conveys time or period the study to be
undertaken.
• How to investigate? – this talks about methodology adopted for
the study.
• How to analyze? – it narrates the method of data analysis. The
tools used to analyze the data.
Purpose of a research design

1) To minimize the expenditure:

• Research design carries an important influence on the

reliability of the results attained .It therefore provides a solid
base for the whole research.

• This makes the research as effective as possible by providing

maximum information with minimum spending of effort,
money and time by preparing the advance plan of all about the
research.
2) To facilitate the smooth sailing:

• Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth

scaling of the various research operations, thereby making research
as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.

3) To collect the relevant data and technique:

• Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be

adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be
used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research
and the availability of staff time and money.
• Poor preparation of research design upset the entire project.
4) To provide blue print for plans:

Research design is needed due to the fact that it allows for

the smooth working of many research operations. It is like blue
print which we need in advance to plan the methods to be
adopted for collecting the relevant data and techniques to be
used in its analysis for preparation of research project. Just as for
better economical and attractive construction of a house need a
blue print and a map of that, similarly we needs a blue print or a
design for the smooth flow of operation of research.
5) To provide an overview to other experts:

A research design provides an overview of all the research

process and with the help of the design we can take the help and
views of experts of that field .The design helps the investigator to
organize his ideas , which helps to recognize and fix his faults.

6) To provide a direction:

A research design provides a proper or particular direction to the

other executives and others who are helping us into the process.
The researcher studies available literature and learn about new
and alternative approaches.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design

• Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the

reliability of the data collected and analyzed.

• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported

to be the best design in scientific investigation.

• Similarly, a design which yields maximum information and provides

an opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is
considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design.
1) Objectivity:

• It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection

and scoring of the responses.

• The research design should permit the measuring instruments

which are fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring
the performance must precisely give the same report.

• In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by

the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to
different individuals by more than one independent observer.

• This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be

capable of analysis and interpretation.
2) Reliability:

• It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements.

• For example, if a respondent gives out a response to a particular

item, he is expected to give the same response to that item even if he
is asked repeatedly.

• If he is changing his response to the same item, the consistency will

be lost.

• So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such

a way that it provides consistency or reliability.
3) Validity:

Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it

measures what it is expected to measure.
For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ
should measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the
questionnaire shall be framed accordingly.
4) Generalizability:

• It means how best the data collected from the samples can be
utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large
group from which sample is drawn.

• Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his

findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population,
selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc.
while preparing the research design.

• Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically

prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible.
For ensuring the generalization we should confirm that our
research problem has the following characteristics;

a) The problem is clearly formulated.

b) The population is clearly defined.
c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to
form an appropriate sample.
d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.
e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.
5) Adequate Information

The most important requirement of good research design is that

it should provide adequate information so that the research problem
can be analyzed on a wide perspective. An ideal design should take
into account important factors like;
(a) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied
(b) The objective of the research
(c) The process of obtaining information
(d) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and
(e) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying
research.
Other Features:

• Some other important features of a good research design are

flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on.

• A good research design should minimize bias and maximize

reliability and generalization.
 Important concepts relating
to research design
1) Dependent and Independent Variable
• Variable – A concept which can take on different quantitative values.
Eg., weight, height, income
Continuous variable – eg, Age (can be expressed even in decimal
points)
Non-continuous or discrete variable – eg., Number of children (can
only be expressed in integer values.
• If one variable is depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as a dependent variable (the influenced factor).
• The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed
as an independent variable (the influencing factor).
Example: If we say that height depends upon age, then height is a
dependent variable and age is an independent variable.
2) Extraneous variable - Independent variables that are not related
to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable.

3) Control - To minimise the influence or effect of extraneous

variable.

4) Confounded relationship - When the dependent variable is not

free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

5) Research hypothesis - A predictive statement that relates an

independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research
hypothesis must contain, at least one independent and one
dependent variable.
6) Experimental and non experimental hypothesis- testing research

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is

termed as hypothesis-testing research.

Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed

as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and the research in
which the independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’

7) Experimental and control groups

In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is
exposed to usual conditions, it is termed as a ‘control group’, but
when the group is exposed to some novel or special conditions, it is
termed as an ‘experimental group’.
8) Treatments – the different conditions under which experimental
and control groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’

9) Experiment – The process of examining the truth of a statistical

hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an
experiment.
Eg., we can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a
newly developed drug.
If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a
crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to
determine the impact of a fertilizer as compared to the impact of
other fertilizer, then it is a case of comparative experiment.

10) Experimental unit(s) – The predetermined plots or the blocks,

where different treatments are used, are known as experimental
units.
Types of Research Designs

Exploratory Descriptive
Research Research
Design Design

Diagnostic Experimental
Research Research
Design Design
 Exploratory Research Design
Exploratory research design is used to find the solution for new problems.

Definitions of Exploratory Research Design

• Exploratory Research Design refers to, “Formulating a problem for more

precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an
operational point of view.” – Garg , C. R. (2014)

• Exploratory Research Design refers to, “Conducted as a preliminary step to

clarify and define the nature of a problem.”- Zikmund, W. G.

• “A Flexible design which must provide opportunity for considering different

aspects of the problems.” –B.D.Kulkarni, D. (1996)
• Exploratory research manifest with something new in the domain or concept.

• The exploration facilitates further thinking in different perspective.

• It may also facilitate the discussions and debates which are well explained and
tested using descriptive research design.

• Feature of exploratory research design is, it is very flexible because, no one can
predict as to how much time the exploration would require. Resources required
for exploratory research design could not be limited.
 Descriptive Research Design
• Outcomes of exploratory research design are the inputs to the descriptive
research design which facilitates to check the scenario of variables manifested from
exploratory study within the existing population.

• Descriptive research design answers the question, what it is about? and it does not
probe into the reasons behind the population scenario towards defined variables.

Definitions of descriptive research design

•Descriptive Research Design refers to, “Which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual or of a group.”- Garg , C. R. (2014).

•“The Descriptive research designs enable researcher to describe or present

pictures of a phenomenon or phenomena under investigation.” –Hasouneh, A. B.
(2003)
Features of descriptive research design are,

• It has resource constraints especially time and money

• The design is rigid and does not allow many changes
• The outcome of descriptive design only describes the population under study
with respect to set of defined variables using different descriptive statistical
tools.
 Diagnostic Research Design

• Variables well defined in descriptive research design are taken to find out its
interrelations, dependability and the like. The design used to seek some sort of
solution to the problem observed and under study.

• It purposefully establishes the relationships between variables to find out the

extent of different variables are contributing to the existing problem and the
like.
Definitions of Diagnostic research design

•Diagnostic Research Design refers to, “Determining the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with something else.” –Garg , C. R. (2014)

•Diagnostic Research Design refers to, “Discovering what is happening, why is

it happening and what can be done about.” –M.Ranganatham, D. O. (2005)

•“It is the most typical and simple problem solving strategy of the helper faced
with problems and crises on the job.” –B.D.Kulkarni, D. (1996)

•“It may be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables
are associated.” –Bhandarkar, W. &. (1992)
 Experimental Research Design

• Experimentations are a base in physical sciences like chemistry, physics, botany

and the like. In social sciences especially experimentations are now widely used
to find out behaviour of human being.

• In management human beings are considered as a customer, consumer,

employees, middlemen and the like. Studying behaviour of such human being
under different circumstances is of use in decision making.

• Hence, management practitioners and researchers are using experimental

research design.

• Experimental research design necessarily follows a hypothesis and seeks

relationship between two or more variables.
Definition of Experimental Research Design

•“More than a hundred ways of conducting such experiments and each these
may be termed as a experimental design.” -Donald Cambell & Julian Stanley

•“Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of a particular

variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or
controlled.” – M.Ranganatham, D. O. (2005)

•“In Experimental Design the researcher can often exert a great deal of control
over extraneous variables and thus ensure that the stimuli in the experimental
conditions are similar.” –Hasouneh, A. B. (2003)

•“Experimental method means those methods wherein researcher tests

hypothesis of casual relationship between variables.” B.D.Kulkarni, D. (1996)
Experimental research design follows three basic principles

•One is principle of randomization – it refers to selection of samples strictly

on random basis to avoid possible biases.

•Second is principle of replication – this means that experimentation should

be repeated more times. This may bring afloat extraneous variables which has
impact on results in experimentation.

•Third principle is principle of local control- this refers to allow the indulgence
of extraneous variables to play role in experimentation. This would allow
researcher to know about extraneous variables which cause variability in
measurement. Extraneous variables then are studies for its inclusion in
experimentation to minimize experimental error.
 Some tools used to conduct exploratory research
EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH DESIGN

1.Experience/ 3. Case studies 7. Focus

Expert Survey groups 10. Open ended
questions
5.Literature
Review
2.Secondary 8. Moderator’s
data analysis Guidebook lists
6. Depth
interviews

4. Pilot studies
9.Benchmarking
1. Experience/ Expert Survey

Expert surveys allow us to gain information from specialists in a field that we

are less qualified or knowledgeable in.

For example, if I was tasked with surveying the public’s stance and
awareness on environmental issues, I could create a preliminary expert
survey for a selected group of environmental authorities. It would ask broad
open-ended questions that are designed to receive large amounts of
content, providing the freedom for the experts to demonstrate their
knowledge. With their input, I would be able to create a survey covering all
sides of the issues.
 2. Secondary Data Analysis

• Secondary data analysis is gathering information from previously published

primary research. In such a research you gather information from sources likes
case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.
• All research strategies can benefit from reviewing similar studies taken and
learning from their results.
• Beyond reviewing other organizations’ research projects, social media like
blogs and forums can give you a better sense of the issues, opinions and
behaviors that go along with your research’s subject matter.
3. Case Studies

Researchers can understand a lot in regards to a problem by studying

carefully selected examples or cases of the phenomenon.

A researcher must examine carefully the previously published case

studies with regard to variables like price, advertisement, changes in
the trend, etc.

It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well as quantitative

in nature depending upon the content.

Example: “A study into differences of leadership practices between

private and public sector organizations in Atlanta, USA.”
4. Pilot study

 A collective term
 Any small scale exploratory study that uses sampling
 But does not apply rigorous standards
 To promote efficiency in conducting surveys, researchers usually
perform a pilot survey.
 especially those that require a large number of participants.
 Applied on a smaller sample compared to the planned sample size.
 In this phase of conducting a survey, the questionnaire is
administered to a percentage of the total sample population, or in
more informal cases just to a convenience sample.
 Advantages
Conducting a pilot survey prior to the actual, large-scale survey presents many
benefits and advantages for the researcher.
- Exploration of the particular issues that may potentially have an antagonistic
impact on the survey results. These issues include the appropriateness of
questions to the target population.
- Tests the correctness of the instructions to be measured by whether all the
respondents in the pilot sample are able to follow the directions as indicated
- Provides better information on whether the type of survey is effective in fulfilling
the purpose of the study.
- Practically speaking, it save financial resources because if errors are found in the
questionnaire or interview early on, there would be a lesser chance of unreliable
results or worse, that you would need to start over again after conducting the
survey.
- The main objective of a pilot study is to determine whether conducting a large-
scale survey is worth the effort.
 TYPES OF PILOT SURVEY

External Internal
administer the consider the
questionnaire to a respondents in the
small group of target pilot as the first
participants who will participants in the
not be included in main survey.
the main survey.
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

 These technique are based on the phenomenon of projection.

 In these technique relatively indefinite and unstructured stimuli are
provided to the subject and he or she is asked to structured them in any
way they likes
 In doing so they unconsciously projects their own desires, hopes, fears,
repressed wishes etc.

1. Word association tests

2. Sentence completion method
3. Third-person technique
4. Role playing
5.T.A.T.
 Word association test

 It is a simple technique devised by Galton in 1879.

 In word association respondents are presented with a list of words one at a time
and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind .

Responses are analyzed by calculating –

 The frequency with which any word is given as a response.
 The amount of time that elapses before a response is given.
 The number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word
within a reasonable period of time.
 Sentence completion test

In Sentence completion test the respondents are given incomplete sentences

and asked to complete them.
Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.
Example
My father seldom.......................

Most people don't know that I'm afraid of..............

When I was a child, I.......................

When encountering frustration, I usually………………

Third-person technique

A projective technique where participants are presented with a situation and are

asked to suggest the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
 Role playing

A projective technique where participants are asked to play the role or

assume the behavior of someone else.

TAT

The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective

measure intended to evaluate a person's patterns of
thought, attitudes, observational capacity, and
emotional responses to ambiguous test materials. In the
case of the TAT, the ambiguous materials consist of a set
of cards that portray human figures in a variety of
settings and situations. The subject is asked to tell the
examiner a story about each card that includes the
following elements: the event shown in the picture; what
has led up to it; what the characters in the picture are
feeling and thinking; and the outcome of the event.
 5. Literature Search

 It is one of the fastest and least expensive means to discover

hypotheses.
 There is enormous quantity of information available in libraries, via
internet sources, in commercial data bases, and so on.
 The literature search may include newspapers, magazines, trade
literature, academic literature, or published statistics from research
organizations or governmental agencies Census Bureau.
 Example: Assume an issue is “Why are product sales lower?” This can
easily be evaluated with the aid of published data which should
indicate “whether the issue is an “industry problem” or a “firm
problem”.
 6. Depth Interview
 It’s important to start with a good literature search, but at some point it is desirable
to talk to persons who are well informed in the area being investigated.
 These people could be professionals or persons outside the organisation.
 Here, we don’t need questionnaire.
 The approach adopted should be highly unstructured, so that the participant can
give divergent views.

 Anybody with related information is a potential candidate for a depth interview,

such as existing clients, members of the target market, executives and supervisors of
the client organization, sales representatives, suppliers, retailers, and so on.

 For example, a children’s book publisher obtained useful information regarding a

sales decline by speaking with librarians and school teachers who revealed that
increasing numbers of people were using library facilities and possibly buying fewer
books for their children.
 7. Focus groups

 Yet another frequently used method in exploratory research is the focus group.
 In a focus group, only a few people are brought together to study and talk over
some theme of interest.
 The discussion is directed by a moderator who is in the room with the focus group
participants.
 The group usually is of 8-12 persons. While choosing these individuals, care must
be taken to see that they should have a common background.
 This is certainly needed since there should not be a conflict among the group
members on the common problems that are being talked about.
 Types of focus groups

 TWO-WAY FOCUS GROUP

one focus group watches another focus group and discusses the observations,
interactions and conclusion

 DUAL MODERATOR FOCUS GROUP

one moderator ensures the session progresses smoothly, while another ensures
that all the topics are covered

 DUELING MODERATOR FOCUS GROUP (FENCING- MODERATOR):

two moderators deliberately take opposite sides on the issue under discussion

 RESPONDENT MODERATOR FOCUS GROUP

one of the respondents is asked to act as the moderator temporarily
 MINI FOCUS GROUPS
groups are composed of four or five members rather than 6 to 12

 INTERNET-BASED FOCUS GROUPS

Such “groups,” in which multiple respondents can “meet” electronically via chat rooms,
instant messaging, Web cameras, and the like, offer tremendous speed and cost benefits,
particularly when using an established online panel of respondents.

Moderator
 Develops rapport - helps people relax
 Interacts
 Listens to what people have to say
 Everyone gets a chance to speak
The Role of the Moderator.
 The moderator in the focus group plays the single most important and most
difficult role in the process.
 8. Moderator’s Guidebook Lists
 The moderator’s guidebook lists the general (and specific) issues to be
addressed during the session, placing them in the general order in which the
topics should arise.
 In general, a funnel approach is used, with broad general topics first and then
increasing focus on the specific issues to be studied.
 As the moderator, you must understand the background of the problem and
what the client needs to learn from the research process. Without this in-
formation, it’s impossible to develop the guidebook and conduct a focus group
effectively.
 9. Benchmarking

 Organizations carry out benchmarking through activities such as reading

about other organizations, visiting or calling them, and taking apart
competing products to see how they are made.
 The process of benchmarking varies according to the information needs of
the organization and the resources available. Xerox is widely credited with
the first benchmarking project in the United States.
 For example, L.L.Bean is noted for its excellent order fulfillment. Even during
the busy Christmas season, the company typically fills over 99 percent of its
orders correctly.
 In 1979, Xerox studied Japanese competitors to learn how they could sell
mid-size copiers for less than what it cost Xerox to make them.
 Today, many companies commonly use benchmarking as a standard research
tool.
 10. Open ended questions

 All open-ended questions in your survey are exploratory in nature.

 The mere fact that you allow respondents to provide any feedback they please,
gives you the opportunity to gain insights on topics you haven’t previously
thought of.
 Adding a few open-ended questions in surveys with large amounts of
respondents can be somewhat difficult and time-consuming to sort through, but
it can indicate important trends and opinions for further research.

 For example:
Let’s say we own a news website and asked our visitors the open-ended
question, ‘What would you like to see improved most on our website?’ After
analysing the responses, we identify the top three discussed areas: 1) Navigation,
2) Quality of Information 3) Visual Displays. We can then use these three topics
as our main focus or research objectives for a new survey that will look to
statistically quantify people’s issues with the website with closed-ended
questions.
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN

CROSS-SECTIONAL LONGITUDINAL
RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH DESIGN

TREND STUDY COHORT STUDY PANEL STUDY

A trend study samples different groups of people at different points in time from
the same population.

Example: Before an election a sample of adults is drawn. A year later, a different

sample drawn from the same population shows a change.

Example: In 2003, 1000 people are asked for their support for same sex marriage.
In 2013, a different set of 1000 people are asked for their response for the same.
The difference in opinion is the trend in support for same sex marriage.

Advantages:
These help to investigate a sample from a general population over a time with
respect to some phenomenon.
Trend studies permit researchers to examine pattern and rate of change and to
make prediction about future direction based on previously identified patterns and
rates of changes.
Panel studies measure the same sample of respondents at different points in
time. Unlike trend studies, panel studies can reveal both net change and gross
change in the dependent variable. 

Cohort Study
A cohort is any group of individuals who are linked in some way or who have
experienced the same significant life event within a given period.
Any study in which some characteristic of one or more points in time is a cohort
analysis.