Compressors: Training Manual

TAKNIA LIBYA ENGINEERING
COMPANY LIMITED
COMPRESSORS
TRAINING MANUAL
Compressors
Presentation Outline
Introduction
Types of compressors
Assessment of compressors
and compressed air systems
Energy efficiency opportunities
Compressor System
References
Introduction
 The compressor is a mechanical device that

increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its
volume (compressible fluid)
 The purpose of a compressor is to increase the
pressure of a gas
 This is done by adding energy to the gas
 1st Law of Thermodynamics - Conservation of
Energy
- ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR DESTROYED
DURING A PROCESS (eg compression), ALTHOUGH IT MAY
CHANGE FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
Introduction
 Examples
– Increase the pressure for instrument air
systems (to get control valves to operate),
transport gases such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, fuel gas, etc. in a chemical plant
Introduction
 Compressors are vapor pumps

 Compressors are similar to pumps ,both
increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe
Introduction
Main Components in Compressed
Air Systems
• Intake air filters
• Inter-stage coolers
• After coolers
• Air dryers
• Moisture drain traps
• Receivers
Introduction
COMPRESSION RATIO
 Defined as the high side pressure (psia)
divided by the low side pressure (psia)
 High compression ratio can lead to
overheated compressor oil
Introduction
COMPRESSION RATIO EXAMPLES

 R-12 compressor
– 169 psig high side, 2 psig low side
– 183.7 psia high side, 16.7 psia low side
– 183.7 psia ÷ 16.7 psia = 11:1 compression ratio
 R-134a compressor
– 184.6 psig high side, 0.7 in. Hg. vacuum low side
– 199.3 psia ÷ 14.35 psia = 13.89:1 compression ratio
Introduction
COMPRESSION RATIO EXAMPLES

 R-12 compressor
– 169 psig high side, 2 psig low side
– 183.7 psia ÷ 16.7 psia = 11:1 compression ratio
 R-134a compressor
– 184.6 psig high side, 0.7 in. Hg. vacuum low side
– 199.3 psia ÷ 14.35 psia = 13.89:1 compression ratio
2 Types of Compressors
Two Basic Compressor Types
Type of
compressor
Positive
Dynamic
displacement
Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial

 Positive Displacement (PD) : Operate by trapping a
specific volume of gas and forcing it into a smaller
volume
– 2 Basic Designs for PD Compressors
» Rotary
» Reciprocating
 Centrifugal : Operate by accelerating the gas and
converting the energy to pressure
– 2 Basic Designs for Centrifugal Compressors
» Centrifugal
» Axial
 Reciprocating
– Fully welded, hermetic compressors
– Semi-hermetic compressors
– Open-drive compressors
– Belt-driven and direct-drive compressors
 Screw compressors
 Rotary compressors
 Scroll compressors
 Centrifugal compressors
Reciprocating Compressor
• Used for air and refrigerant compression
• Works like a bicycle pump: cylinder volume reduces while
pressure increases, with pulsating output
• Many configurations available
• Single acting when using one side of the piston, and double
acting when using both sides
• generally used in low volume applications up to 3000 acfm
• can be used to achieve high pressures
• used for compression of process gas
• maximum compression ratio per stage 3:1 to 4:1
• outlet temperature limits compression ratio
Disadvantages
• limited by the maximum horsepower that can be transmitted through
the crankshaft, loads on the compressor frame and delta P across the
pistons
• pulsation and vibration
• large and heavy
• maintenance intensive
Rotary Compressor
• Rotors instead of pistons: continuous discharge
• Benefits: low cost, compact, low weight, easy to maintain
• Sizes between 30 – 200 hp
• Types
• Lobe compressor
• Screw compressor
• Rotary vane / Slide vane
Positive Displacement Compressors:
Reciprocating Compressors
1. The Construction of Reciprocating

Compressors
 Reciprocating compressor
compresses the vapor by
moving piston in cylinder to
change the volume of the
compression chamber, as
shown in Fig.1.1
 The main elements of a
reciprocating compressor
include piston, cylinder,
valves, connecting rod,
crankshaft and casing.
Fig.1.1 Cutaway view of small two-cylinder reciprocating
compressor
1. The Construction of Reciprocating

Compressors
 A wide variety of compressor designs can be used on
the separable unit including horizontal, vertical, semi-
radial and V-type.
 However, the most common design is the horizontal,
balanced-opposed compressor because of its stability
and reduced vibration
2. Principle of Operation
 Fig. 1.2 shows single-acting piston actions in the cylinder of
a reciprocating compressor.
 The piston is driven by a crank shaft via a connecting rod.
 At the top of the cylinder are a suction valve and a
discharge valve.
 A reciprocating compressor usually has two, three, four, or
six cylinders in it.
Fig.1.2 The compression cycle

2. Principle of Operation
 Gas pressure is increased by compressing the gas into a
smaller volume
Rotary Design
 Rotary compressors (get their name from
the rotating motion of the transfer element)
compress gases with lobes, screws, and
vanes into smaller volumes.
 4 Primary Types of Rotary Compressors:
– Rotary Screw
– Sliding Vane
– Lobe
– Liquid Ring
Rotary Design
• Rotors instead of pistons: continuous discharge
• Benefits: low cost, compact, low weight, easy to
maintain
• Sizes between 30 – 200 hp
• Types
• Lobe compressor
• Screw compressor
• Rotary vane / Slide vane
Rotary Screw Compressors
 Commonly used in industry.
 used for less arduous flow and pressure duties
» air compressors or refrigeration duties
 It operates with 2 helical rotors that rotate toward each other,
causing the teeth to mesh.
 Fixed Volume machines
 As the left rotor turns clockwise, the right rotor rotates
counterclockwise. This forces the gases to become trapped in
the central cavity.
 The 2 rotors are attached to a drive shaft and drive that provide
energy to operate the compressor.
 Have an inlet suction line and outlet discharge port.
1. The Construction and operation of Screw

Compressors
 Screw compressors are also belong to the positive displacement
compressor family.
 In screw compressors, the compression is accomplished by the
enmeshing of two mating helically grooved rotors suitably
housed in a cylinder equipped with appropriated inlet and
discharge ports (Fig.1.3)
 The rotors are the main components of the screw compressor.
 A cross view of the two principle rotating elements of the screw
compressor is shown in Fig.1.4
 The male rotor is normally the driving rotor and consists of a series of
lobes (usually four) along the length of the rotor that mesh with
similarly formed corresponding helical flutes (usually six) on the
female rotor.

Compressors
 As the rotors turn, vapor is drawn through the inlet opening
to fill the space between the male lobe and the female flute.
 As the rotors continue to rotate, the vapor is moved past the
suction port and sealed in the interlobe space.
 The vapor so trapped in the interlobe space is moved both
axially and radially and is compressed by direct volume
reduction as the enmeshing of the lobes progressively
reduced the space occupied by the vapor.

Compressors
 Compression of the vapor continues until the interlobe space
communicates with the discharge ports in the cylinder and the
compressed vapor leaves the cylinder through these ports.
 The length and diameter of the rotors determine the capacity
and the discharge pressure.
 The longer the rotors, the higher the pressure.
 The larger the diameter of the rotors, the greater the capacity.
Rotary Screw Compressor
Fig.1.4 Cross section of the two rotors of

Fig. 1.3 The Construction of Screw Compressors [17 ]
a screw compressor
2.Advantages of the screw compressor

 Screw compressors are reliable and compact.
 Compressor rotors can be manufactured with very small
clearances at an economic cost.
 In many applications, the screw compressor offers significant
advantages over reciprocating compressors.
1. Its fewer moving parts mean less maintenance. There is no need
to service the items such as compressor valves, packing and
piston rings, and the associated downtime for replacement.
2. The absence of reciprocating inertial forces allows the screw

compressor to run at high speeds. So, it could be constructed
more compact.
2.Advantages of the screw compressor

3. The continuous flow of cooling lubricant allows much higher
single-stage compression ratios.
4. The compactness tends to reduce package costs.
5. Low vibration due to reducing or eliminating pulsations by

screw technology
6. Higher speeds and compression ratios help to maximize

available production horsepower.
 A major problem with screw compressors is that the pressure
difference between entry and exit creates very large radial and
axial forces on the rotors whose magnitude and direction is
independent of the direction of rotation.
Sliding Vane Compressors
 Uses a slightly off-center rotor with sliding vanes
to compress gas.
 Inlet gas flows into the vanes when they are fully
extended and form the largest pocket. As the
vanes turn toward the discharge port, the gases
are compressed.
 As the volume decreases, the pressure increases
until maximum compression is achieved. Then
the gas is discharged out the compressor.
Sliding Vane Compressor
Lobe Compressors
 Characterized by 2 kidney-bean shaped
impellers used to trap and transfer gases.
 The 2 impellers move in opposite directions
on parallel mounted shafts as the lobes
sweep across the suction port.
 Compressed gases are released into the
discharge line.
 The lobes do not touch each other. A few
thousands of an inch clearing exists between
the casing and lobes.
Lobe Compressors
 Designed to have constant volume

discharge pressures and constant
speed drivers.
 Lobe Compressors can be used as
compressors or vacuum pumps.
Lobe Compressor
Liquid Ring Compressors
 It has one moving transfer element and a casing
that is filled with water or seal liquid.
 As the rotor turns, the fluid is centrifugally forced
to the outer wall of the elliptical casing. An air
pocket is formed in the center of the casing.
 As the liquid ring compressor rotates, a small %
of the liquid escapes out the discharge port.
Make up water or seal liquid is added to the
compressor during operation. The liquid helps
cool the compressed gases.
Liquid Ring Compressors
 Used to compress hazardous and toxic gases

as well as hot gases.
Positive Displacement Reciprocating
Compressors
 Most common type of compressors.

 Work by trapping and compressing specific
volumes of gas between a piston and a
cylinder wall.
 The back and forth motion incorporated by a
reciprocating compressor pulls gas in on the
suction (or intake) stroke and discharges it on
the other.
 Spring-loaded suction and discharge valves
open/close automatically as the piston moves
up and down in the cylinder chamber.
Compressors
 Used for air and refrigerant compression

 Works like a bicycle pump: cylinder volume
reduces while pressure increases, with
pulsating output
 Many configurations available
 Single acting when using one side of the
piston, and double acting when using both
sides
Compressors
 Basic Parts of are:

– Piston
– Connecting Rod
– Crankshaft
– Diver
– Piston Rings
– Suction Line
– Discharge Line
– Spring -Loaded Suction and Discharge Valves
Positive Displacement:Reciprocating
Compressors
 Can have 1 to 4 cylinders. One shown only has one cylinder.

TWO-STAGE COMPRESSION
 Lowers the compression ratio

 Utilizes two compressors
 One compressor discharges into suction of the
other
 Also referred to as compound compression
 Often used when the compression ratio of a single
compressor system exceeds 10:1
 Often used in low-temperature commercial and
industrial storage applications
TWO-STAGE COMPRESSION
Multistage Compressors
Discharge from Stage 1 is suction for Stage 2.

OTHER COMPRESSOR TYPES
 Screw compressor
– Used in large commercial/industrial applications
– Uses two matching, tapered gears, and open motor design
 Rotary compressor
– Used in residential and light commercial applications –
primarily in domestic refrigerators
 Scroll compressor
– Uses a matched set or scrolls to achieve compression
– Becoming more popular for their ability to handle liquid
refrigerant without compressor damage
 Centrifugal compressors
– Used extensively for air conditioning in large structures
Centrifugal Compressors
Definition of the Centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressor is a machine in which a gas or vapour
is compressed by radial acceleration in an impeller with a
surrounding casing, and can be arranged multistage for high
ratios of compression.
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a

shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller,
increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct)
section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy.
Definition of the Centrifugal compressor

• Rotating impeller
transfers energy
to move air
• Continuous duty
• Designed oil free

• High volume
applications
> 12,000 cfm
• Centrifugal forces through the impeller

- gas accelerates from the eye to the tip of the
impeller
•Aerodynamic Forces
- gas moving across the impeller blades
•Converts kinetic energy to pressures
- gas slowing down through the diffuser
• The amount of head that can be generated by a
centrifugal compressor impeller depends on the speed
and diameter
• More velocity and pressure will develop with large
diameter and high speed impellers than with small low
speed impellers
• An impeller that is too large and operating at extremely
high speeds will tear itself apart
• This fact limits the output that can be achieved from a
single impeller and is resolved by multi-staging
• Normally limited to a maximum of 10 impellers in a
single casing
Apparatus of centrifugal compressor
1. The construction and operation of turbo

Compressors

“Turbo compressor” as understood in refrigeration industry
usually refers to a centrifugal compressor.
 A schematic diagram of the centrifugal compressor is shown in
Fig.1.4.
Fig.1.4 Schematic diagram of the centrifugal compressor

1-eye, inlet cavity. 2–impeller (wheel). 3-blades (or
vanes).
4-diffuser. 5-volute (scroll). 6- outlet cavity.
1. The construction and operation of turbo

Compressors
 Vapor enters axially at the centre wheel 1 and flows through the
passage 3 in the impeller 2.
 The pressure and absolute velocity of the vapor rises when it
passes the impeller because of the centrifugal force.
 In the stationary diffuser 4 the flow of vapor is decelerated to
further raise the vapor pressure.
 The compressed vapor is collected in the scroll or volute 5 and
discharged to the delivery pipe 6.
 Centrifugal compressors accelerates

the velocity of the gases (increases
kinetic energy) which is then converted
into pressure as the gas flow leaves the
volute and enters the discharge pipe.
 Usually operate at speeds > 3,000 rpm.
 Deliver much higher flow rates than
positive displacement compressors.
• Rotating impeller transfers energy

to move air
• Continuous duty
• Designed oil free
• High volume applications > 12,000
cfm
• Used at pressures up to 500 barg and

volumes up to 100,000 actual cubic ft/min
• Up to 40 MW at speeds of 3500 to 12000
rpm
• usually used in offshore applications for
compressing gas
 2 Types of Centrifugal Compressors

– Single- Stage : Compress the gas once
» Use for high gas flow rates, low
discharge pressures
– Multi- Stage : Take the discharge of one
stage and pass it to the suction of
another stage
» Use for high gas flow rates, high
discharge pressures
 Basic Components
– Impellers, Vanes, Volutes, Suction Eyes,
Discharge lines, Diffuser Plates, Seals,
Shaft, Casing
– Suction Vane Tips = Part of the impeller
vane that comes into contact with gas first.
– Discharge Vane Tips = Part of the impeller
vane that comes into contact with gas last
Centrifugal Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor:Horizontal and
Vertical Split Casing
 Horizontal Casing
 Made in two halves and bolted together
 Used for low to mid range pressures
 Easy to strip down for maintenance
 Vertical Casing
 casing and barrel with no horizontal joints
 the barrel is positioned inside the casing and held in
place by a series of bolts at both ends of the barrel
 for maintenance the bolts and the barrel must be
removed and the impeller removed from the barrel
Fixed and Variable Speed Compressors
 Fixed Speed Machines

– usually driven by electric motors
– simplest type of centrifugal compressor
 Variable Speed Machines

– usually driven by gas or steam turbines
(offshore it’s gas) which provide the power to
run the compressor at different speeds
Fixed Speed Compressors
Fixed Speed Compressors
Compressor Performance –
The performance of a fixed speed compressor can be
described by a simple curve describing the relation ship
between polytropic head and actual volumetric flow
The curve starts at the surge point which is the lowest
flow point on the curve and end in the stonewall region
which is the highest flow point on the curve
For most fixed speed compressors this curve which is
known as the operating line
Polytropic Head Equation
 The relationship between the polytropic head and the compressor
discharge pressure is defined by the polytropic head equation:
ZAV=Average compressibility PD = Discharge Pressure

R = Universal Gas constant PS = Suction Pressure
Ø = polytropic coefficient TS = Suction Temperature
MW = Molecular Weight
Changing Compressor Conditions
 The effect of changing inlet conditions at constant volume flow
and speed are given below -
Centrifugal Compressor: Axial
Design
 more efficient than centrifugal compressors
 can be provided in higher capacities
 up to 600000acfm
 generally only used for air or clean non corrosive gases as the machines are
susceptible to deposition, corrosion and erosion
 found in gas turbines (aero engines)
 In industry, axial compressors are used a lot high flows and pressures are
needed.
 Gas flow is moves along the shaft.
 Rotating blades attached to a shaft push gases over stationary blades called
stators.
 Stator blades are attached to the casing.
Design
 Composed of a rotor that has rows of

fanlike blades.
 In industry, axial compressors are used a
lot high flows and pressures are needed.
 Gas flow is moves along the shaft.
 Rotating blades attached to a shaft push
gases over stationary blades called stators.
 Stator blades are attached to the casing.
Design
 As the gas velocity is increased by the rotating
blades, the stator blades slow it down. As the gas
slows, kinetic energy is converted into pressure.
 Gas velocity increases as it moves from stage to
stage until it reaches the discharge.
 Multi-Stage axial compressors can generate very
high flow rates and discharge pressures.
 Axial compressors are usually limited to 16 stages
(due to temperature/material limitations)
 Pound for pound, axial compressors are lighter,
more efficient, and smaller than centrifugal
compressors.
Axial Compressor
Axial Compressor
Compressor Surge
 Surge is defined as the operating point at which the

compressor peak head capability and minimum flow
limit are reached. The compressor loses the ability to
maintain the peak head when surge occurs and the
entire system becomes unstable. Under normal
conditions, the compressor operates to the right of
the surge line. Mechanical damage
 Surge is simply a breakdown of flow through the
compressor
 Occurs when the compressor tries to compress the
gas to too high a pressure at a flow rate that is too low
Compressor Surge
 Surge symptoms
– Flow fluctuations and oscillations

– high gas temperature
– fluctuating suction and discharge pressures
– Increased vibration
– Allot of increased noise
Surge phenomena and surge control
 Consequences of Surging
– Rapid flow and pressure oscillations cause process
instabilities
– Rising temperatures inside the compressor
– Tripping of the compressor
– Mechanical damage
– Damage to seals bearings impellers and shaft
– Changed clearances - reduced efficiency
– Shorted compressor life and higher maintenance
costs
 Speed of Surge
– A compressor can go into surge very quickly - a

few tenths of a second - so conventional
instruments may not detect it
– Essentially the flow in the compressor reverses in
20 to 40 millisecond
– A specialist anti surge control system is used to
prevent surge
Stonewall
Highest Flow Point on the compressor curve
When stonewall occurs there is actually “choked flow”

occurring somewhere in the compressor
The symptoms of stonewall are very similar to those of

surge and it’s effects on the compressor are equally
detrimental
Anti Surge Control
The objective of the anti surge control system is to

prevent the compressor entering surge by
– increasing the flow through the machine
– reducing the head across the machine by decreasing
discharge pressure (and increasing suction pressure)
Normally achieved by opening a recycle valve at a pre

determined minimum flow - usually at a flow about 15%
above the compressor surge point
Compressor Control Methods
 Methods to control compressors include -

 Discharge throttling
 not commonly used as it is inefficient and wastes energy
 Suction throttling
 lower suction pressure by throttling on suction to accomplish the
same result as discharge throttling
 also creates a greater actual inlet volume flow giving improved
surge characteristics
 Recycle
 least efficient due to compressing same gas twice
 Capacity control
 capacity dictated by speed of compressor during operation
Variable Speed Compressor
Variable Speed Compressors
 For each speed that the compressor operates at there

is an operating line - just as there is for a fixed speed
machine
 The family of speed lines constitutes a map within
which the compressor operates
 At the low flow part of the map there is a surge region
and at the high flow part there is a stonewall region
 Variable speed compressors are highly flexible but
because of the flexibility they are more difficult to
control
Fan Laws
Flow α Speed
Head α (Speed)²
Power α (Speed)³
Speed control is the most efficient way of varying the

compressors head and inlet flow because it allows
operation along the system curve without imposing any
throttling pressure drops
Operating limits
 Many centrifugal compressors have one

or more of the following operating limits:-
 Minimum Operating Speed
The minimum speed for acceptable operation, below this value the
compressor may be controlled to stop or go into an "Idle" condition.
 Stonewall or Choke
occurs under one of 2 conditions.
A- Typically for high speed equipment, as flow increases the velocity of the
gas/fluid can approach the gas/fluid's sonic speed.
B-For low speed equipment, as flows increase, losses increase such that
the pressure ratio drops to 1:1
 Surge in which it reaches the point at which the compressor cannot add
enough energy to overcome the system resistance.
Parameters for selection of compressor
 Application
 Gas analysis.
 Flow rate.
 Suction Pressure.
 Suction Temperature.
 Mol wt. of Gas.
 Z (Compressibility) & specific heat ratio.
 Discharge Pressure.
Considerations in the Design of Gas
Compressors
• Suction pressure in absolute terms

• Desired discharge pressure and temperature
• Molecular Weight and composition of the gas
• Type of driver desired
• Actual Volume of gas to be compressed
• Suction Temperature
• Contaminates within the gas
• Capacity control methods
• Average ambient temperatures
Types of Compressors
Comparison of Compressors
• Efficiency at full, partial and no load
• Noise level
• Size
• Oil carry-over
• Vibration
• Maintenance
• Capacity
• Pressure
Assessment of Compressors
Capacity of a Compressor
• Capacity: full rated volume of flow of compressed
gas
• Actual flow rate: free air delivery (FAD)
• FAD reduced by ageing, poor maintenance,
fouled heat exchanger and altitude
• Energy loss: percentage deviation of FAD
capacity
Simple Capacity Assessment Method

• Isolate compressor and receiver and close
receiver outlet
• Empty the receiver and the pipeline from water
• Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch
• Note time taken to attain the normal operational
pressure P2 (in the receiver) from initial pressure
P1
• Calculate the capacity FAD:
Simple Capacity Assessment Method
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2a)

P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding)
P0 = Atmospheric pressure (kg/cm2a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver, after cooler and
delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes
Compressor Efficiency
• Most practical: specific power consumption (kW / volume
flow rate)
• Other methods
• Isothermal
• Volumetric
• Adiabatic
• Mechanical
Isothermal efficiency
Isothermal efficiency =
Actual measured input power / Isothermal power
Isothermal power (kW) = P1 x Q1 x loger / 36.7
P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg / cm2

Q1 = Free air delivered m3 / hr
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency
= Free air delivered m3/min / Compressor displacement
Compressor displacement = Π x D2/4 x L x S x χ x n
D = Cylinder bore, meter

L = Cylinder stroke, meter
S = Compressor speed rpm
χ = 1 for single acting and 2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
Compressor Gas Seals

• In order to keep the gas inside the compressor and
not in the area around the compressor it is necessary
to have specialist seals between the compressor and
the Shaft that drives it
• There are several different types of gas seals on a
compressor, the most common being
– labyrinth seals
– liquid film seals
– dry gas seals
Leaks
• Consequences
• Energy waste: 20 – 30% of output
• Drop in system pressure
• Shorter equipment life
• Common leakage areas
• Couplings, hoses, tubes, fittings
• Pressure regulators
• Open condensate traps, shut-off valves
• Pipe joints, disconnects, thread sealants
Leak Quantification Method
• Total leakage calculation:
Leakage (%) = [(T x 100) / (T + t)]
T = on-load time (minutes)

t = off-load time (minutes)
• Well maintained system: less than

10% leakages
Quantifying leaks on the shop floor

• Shut off compressed air operated equipments
• Run compressor to charge the system to set pressure of
operation
• Note the time taken for “Load” and “Unload” cycles
• Calculate quantity of leakage (previous slide)
• If Q is actual free air supplied during trial (m3/min), then:
System leakage (m3/minute) = Q × T / (T + t)

Example
• Compressor capacity (m3/minute) = 35
• Cut in pressure, kg/cm2 = 6.8
• Cut out pressure, kg/cm2 = 7.5
• Load kW drawn = 188 kW
• Unload kW drawn = 54 kW
• Average ‘Load’ time =1.5 min
• Average ‘Unload’ time = 10.5 min
Leakage = [(1.5)/(1.5+10.5)] x 35 = 4.375 m3/minute

Bearings & Lubrications
 As with all rotating machinery a compressor relies

heavily on it’s bearings and their lubrication for
correct operation
 Often the lube oil and seal oil systems can be
combined for a compressor
Energy Efficiency Opportunities
1. Location
• Significant influence on energy use
2. Elevation
• Higher altitude = lower volumetric efficiency
3. Air Intake
• Keep intake air free from contaminants, dust or moist
• Keep intake air temperature low
Every 4oC rise in inlet air temperature = 1%
higher energy consumption
• Keep ambient temperature low when an intake air filter is

located at the compressor
4. Pressure Drops in Air Filter

• Install filter in cool location or draw air
from cool location
• Keep pressure drop across intake air
filter to a minimum
– Every 250 mm WC pressure drop = 2%
higher energy consumption
5. Use Inter and After Coolers

• Inlet air temperature rises at each stage of multi-
stage machine
• Inter coolers: heat exchangers that remove heat
between stages
• After coolers: reduce air temperature after final
stage
• Use water at lower temperature: reduce power
6. Pressure Settings
• Higher pressure
• More power by compressors
• Lower volumetric efficiency
• Operating above operating pressures
• Waste of energy
• Excessive wear
1) a. Reducing delivery pressure
Operating a compressor at 120 PSIG instead of \100
PSIG: 10% less energy and reduced
leakage rate
b. Compressor modulation by optimum
pressure settings
Applicable when different compressors connected
c. Segregating high/low pressure requirements
Pressure reducing valves no longer needed
d. Design for minimum pressure drop in the distribution
line
• Pressure drop: reduction in air pressure from the compressor
discharge to the point of use
• Pressure drop < 10%
• Pressure drops caused by
• corrosion
• inadequate sized piping, couplings hoses
• choked filter elements
d. Design for minimum pressure drop in the
distribution line
Typical pressure drop in compressed air line for

different pipe size (Confederation of Indian Industries)
7. Minimizing Leakage
• Use ultrasonic acoustic detector
• Tighten joints and connections
• Replace faulty equipment
8. Condensate Removal
• Condensate formed as after-cooler reduces
discharge air temperature
• Install condensate separator trap to remove
condensate
9. Controlled usage
• Do not use for low-pressure
applications: agitation, combustion air,
pneumatic conveying
• Use blowers instead
10. Compressor controls

• Automatically turns off compressor
when not needed
11. Maintenance Practices
• Lubrication: Checked regularly

• Air filters: Replaced regularly
• Condensate traps: Ensure drainage
• Air dryers: Inspect and replace filters
Typical Compressor A System
Other equipment needed in a process system.

Typical Compressor System
 Safety valves and pressure relief valves

used to remove excess pressure that
could damage equipment and people.
 Silencers are mounted on the inlet and
outlet of a compressor to ‘reduce’ the
noise. Compressors are very noisy. Exxon
had one for a refinery light ends stream
nicknamed “Old Snort” by the technicians.
Typical Compressor System
 Demister removes moisture (liquid) from the

gas stream. The liquid falls to the bottom of
the demister and is removed. The clean
gases goes out the top of the demister.
 Dryer sometimes used on the compressor
discharge line to remove any liquids
(moisture). Silica gel and molecular sieves
(3A mole sieve) often used.
Typical Compressor B System
Typical Compressor B Compression
 2 stage variable speed compressor driven by a gas

turbine
 Each stage has a
- suction scrubber
- centrifugal compressor
- air cooled exchanger
 The second stage of compression also has a discharge scrubber
Suctionpressure of 506kPa
 source of gas is from LP separators
Discharge pressure of 2459 kPa
 to glycol contactors - co mingled with gas from the HP
separators
Typical Compressor B Compression
Compression Flowrates
The off gas compressor is not capable of handling gas

flowrates above 496 kNm3/day
The off gas compressor is not capable of handling gas

flowrates below 228 kNm3/day
- if LP gas rates are less than this some compressor

flow will be recycled to meet this minimum flow
Compressor B - Control Philosophy
 A complex control system is incorporated into the gas

compression system to maintain normal operating
conditions as well as to protect the compressor from going
into surge
 Controlled from the UCP (unit control panel)
 The three modes of operation responsible for the control
system are
- Compressor speed control
- System recycle
- Surge control
In normal operating cases the compressor will run in speed
control mode determined by the suction and discharge
pressures
Compressor B - Control Philosophy
Recycle Control
A recycle gas flow from the second stage discharge scrubber
to the 1st stage suction scrubber is provided for situations
when the process control system cannot keep up with the
process upset i.e.
- low suction pressure
- high discharge pressure
- the recycle valve will also open if the surge control
kicks in on the compressor
Low gas flowrates to the compressor will result in the suction
pressure of the compressor being drawn down resulting in the
machine going into recycle
Compressor B -Surge Control Valves
 Each compression stage has it’s own surge control

valve controlled by the UCP
- the inlet to the 1st stage surge control valve is
after the 1st stage cooler upstream of the 2nd stage suction
scrubber
- flow through the 1st stage compressor surge valve is
routed back to the 1st stage suction scrubber
- the inlet to the 2nd stage surge control valve is
after the 2nd stage cooler upstream of the 2nd stage discharge
scrubber
- flow through the 2nd stage compressor surge valve is
routed back to the 2nd stage suction scrubber
The surge controllers monitor the flowrates and differential
pressures across each stage each of the compressor
Compressor B Driver
 Variable speed compressor

 Prime mover is a gas turbine with a maximum
continuous speed of 22,300rpm in the power turbine
section
 Gas turbine is rated for 895kWatts with a 22%
efficiency
 The gas turbine output constraints e.g. maximum
speed, maximum firing, maximum exhaust gas
temperature are always active and will override the
process control of the compressor when these limits
are reached
Typical Compressor Start Up
Procedures
 Check valve line up on the compressor and

associated equipment.
 Check compressor oil levels and bearing cooling
water systems.
 Be sure all the compressor controls are set correctly.
 Turn on the compressor.
 Monitor equipment and process until conditions
‘steady’ out.
Applications in gas and oil industry
Reference
 “ The Process Technology Handbook”,

by Charles E. Thomas, UHAI
Publishing, Berne, NY, 1997.
Training Session on Compressors
Compressors &
Compressed Air
Systems
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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TAKNIA LIBYA ENGINEERING

Energy efficiency opportunities

 The compressor is a mechanical device that

 Compressors are vapor pumps

COMPRESSION RATIO EXAMPLES

COMPRESSION RATIO EXAMPLES

Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial

1. The Construction of Reciprocating

1. The Construction of Reciprocating

Fig.1.2 The compression cycle

1. The Construction and operation of Screw

1. The Construction and operation of Screw

1. The Construction and operation of Screw

Fig.1.4 Cross section of the two rotors of

2.Advantages of the screw compressor

2. The absence of reciprocating inertial forces allows the screw

2.Advantages of the screw compressor

4. The compactness tends to reduce package costs.

5. Low vibration due to reducing or eliminating pulsations by

6. Higher speeds and compression ratios help to maximize

 Designed to have constant volume

 Used to compress hazardous and toxic gases

 Most common type of compressors.

 Used for air and refrigerant compression

 Basic Parts of are:

 Can have 1 to 4 cylinders. One shown only has one cylinder.

 Lowers the compression ratio

Discharge from Stage 1 is suction for Stage 2.

Definition of the Centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a

Definition of the Centrifugal compressor

• Designed oil free

• Centrifugal forces through the impeller

1. The construction and operation of turbo

Fig.1.4 Schematic diagram of the centrifugal compressor

1. The construction and operation of turbo

 Centrifugal compressors accelerates

• Rotating impeller transfers energy

• Used at pressures up to 500 barg and

 2 Types of Centrifugal Compressors

 Fixed Speed Machines

 Variable Speed Machines

ZAV=Average compressibility PD = Discharge Pressure

 Composed of a rotor that has rows of

 Surge is defined as the operating point at which the

– Flow fluctuations and oscillations

– A compressor can go into surge very quickly - a

Highest Flow Point on the compressor curve

When stonewall occurs there is actually “choked flow”

The symptoms of stonewall are very similar to those of

Anti Surge Control

The objective of the anti surge control system is to

Normally achieved by opening a recycle valve at a pre

 Methods to control compressors include -

 For each speed that the compressor operates at there

Speed control is the most efficient way of varying the

 Many centrifugal compressors have one

• Suction pressure in absolute terms

Simple Capacity Assessment Method