Lacture-3

Acoustic Wave Equation

 Acoustic Variables

• Pressure
p  P -Po
• Density – Condensation   o
s
• Velocity (particle)  o
 
u
t
 is partical displacement

   x xˆ   x yˆ   x zˆ
• Temperature

T
Necessary Differential Equations to Obtain a
Wave Equation

 Mass Continuity/conservation
 Equation of State(adiabatic)
 Force Equation

Assumptions: homogeneous, isotropic, ideal fluid

 Equations of State

P = rTk r is specific gas constant


P  P    Perfect gas isotherm
  
Po o Po  o 
 is ratio of specific heat
Real Fluids: Taylor expansion
 P  1 P 
2
   
2
P =Po       o   2    o  ...
  o 2   
o

B(    0 )
P  P0  B is adiabatic bulk modulus
0
    P 
p  Bs s 0 B   o 
    o
0
Gas Law
 Sound Speed
Bulk modulus B
c 
density 

Air Water Steel

Bulk Modulus 1.4(1.01 x 105) Pa 2.2 x 109 Pa ~2.5 x 1011 Pa
Density 1.21 kg/m3 1000 kg/m3 ~104 kg/m3
Speed 343 m/s 1500 m/s 5000 m/s
 Continuity Equation
 ( u x )
 u x  x  u x  x dxu x  x dx
dz

dy
dx
Net influx of mass into this spatially fixed volume resulting from flow in the x
direction  ( u x )
[ u x  ( u x  dx )]dydz
x
 ( u x )  ( u x )
 dxdydz   dV
x x
 ( u x )  ( u y )  ( u z ) 
(   ) dV  .( u ) dV
x y z

Rate with which the mass increase in the volume is t dV
 
The net influx must equal the rate of increase dV  .( u ) dV
t
 
 .( u )  0
t
 
 .( u )  0 (1.1) Linear continuity equation
t

   0 (1  s )

If 0 is sufficiently weak function of time and s is very small

s 
 0  .(  0u )  0
t
s 
 .(u )  0
t
 Force Equation
dV=dxdydz has mass dm
P move with the fluid
Px  P  x dx P
x
dx
dz Then df=am
dy Let viscosity is absent
g dx
P P P
df x  [ P  ( P  dx)]dydz   dxdydz   dV
x x x
Similarly df y   P dV df z  
P
dV
y z
Gravitational force induces an additional force in the vertical direction

df  PdV  gdV
Particle velocity u is a function of position and time
Let at time t+dt particle move to new position

u ( x  dx, y  dy, z  dz, t  dt )
 Fluid Acceleration
 
u  x, y,z, t   u  x  dx, y  dy,z  dz, t  dt 
Taylor
 
expansion
 
  u u u u
u  x  dx, y  dy, z  dz, t  dt   u  x, y, z, t   dx  dy  dz  dt
x y z t

dx=uxdt    
 u u u u
dy=uydt  u  x, y, z, t   u x dt  u y dt  u zdt  dt
x y z t
dz=uzdt
 
 u  x  dx, y  dy,z  dz, t  dt   u  x, y,z, t 
a  lim
t 0 t
   
 u u u u
a  ux  uy  uz
t x y z
   
u .  u x  uy  uz then 
x y z  u  
a  (u .)u
t
 Newton’s Second Law
df=am Where m=dV

 u  
df  PdV  gdV  [  (u .)u ]dV
t

u  
  P  g  [  (u . )u ]
t

If there is no acoustic excitation then g 0  P0


 P   p  g 0 
  u  
 p  g 0  g  [  (u .)u ]
t

 u  
 p  g (    0 )  [  (u . )u ]
t

1  u  
  p  gs  [  (u .)u ](1  s )
0 t
  
If we assume gs  p /  0 , s  1
 
( u . ) u 
u
t
then


u
0  p Euler’s equation/Linear Force Equation
t
A. Equations of State p  Bs

B. Linear continuity equation

 
 .( u )  0
t

C. Euler’s equation/Linear Force Equation


u
0  p
t
 Linear Wave Equation

u
Take divergence of the 0  p
t

u
.(  0 )   2 p
t
 2is the three  dim ensional Laplacian
  s 
Take time derivative of the  .( u )  0  0  .(  0u )  0
t
 t
2s u
 0 2  .(  0 )  0
t t p
p  Bs s
2s 2s B
0 2   2 p  p  0 2
2

t t

B
c 
2 2
1 p
2 p  2
c 0 t 2 0
Linear Wave Equation
 Velocity Potential
Curl of the gradient of a function must vanish

u
  [ 0 ]    p
t


u  0
That means u can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function

u  
0
 
t
 p  0 0  p0

t
 
  0  p  0
 t  
0  p
t
 Variation of sound speed with temperature

 P  Po
B  o    Po   o c 2
c 
2

  o o
P = rTk  Po = o rTko
c 2  rTk
o rTko
co2   rTko
o
c 2 Tk Tk 273  TC TC
    1 
co2 Tko 273 273 273
TC
c  co 1 
273
 Class Sound Speed Data
Class Sound Speed in Water Data
y = 0.0004x 3 - 0.0807x 2 + 6.2061x + 1393.4
1520

1500
Sound Speed (m/s)

1480

Series1
1460
Poly. (Series1)

1440

1420

1400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Temp (C)
 Harmonic Plane Waves

Characteristic property: a plane wave is that each acoustic

variable has constant amplitude and phase on any plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

1  2
p If we consider the plane wave propagates
 p 2 2
2
along the x axis then wave equation become
c t
 p2
1  p 2
 2
p  p ( x, t ) x 2
c t 2

Complex harmonic solution 

k wavenumber
j (t  kx ) j (t  kx ) c
p  Ae  Be
 
u
0  p
t

Entire sound field varies as e Sojt
can be replaced by j
t
p
 0 juˆ x  0 p  Ae j (t  kx )
 Be j (t  kx )
x
p
 A(  jk )e j (t  kx )  B ( jk )e j (t  kx )
x
 
 A(  j ) e j (t  kx )  B ( j ) e j (t  kx )
c c
 j (t  kx )  j (t  kx )
 0 juˆ x  A( j ) e  B( j ) e 0
c c

A j (t  kx ) b j (t  kx )
uˆ x  [ e  e ]
0c 0c
 p
s  
0c 2 0  p
t
 0 j   p
p
  
j 0
Plane wave in arbitrary direction
j ( wt  k x x  k y y  k z z )
p  Ae
1 
 p 2 2
2
2
p  2
( )  kx  k y  kz
2 2 2
c t c

k  k x xˆ  k y yˆ  k z zˆ Propagation
Vector
  
Propagation Vector has magnitude and a position vector r
 c
r  xx
ˆ  yy
ˆ  zzˆ
z
 
k j ( t  k . r )
 p  Ae
  Direction Cosines
y
kx ky
cos   cos  
x k k
Propagation Vector
kz
 
   
 k r  k cos  
 k
k  k 2x  k 2y  k 2z  k cos 2   cos 2   cos 2 
Surface of constant phase are given by

k .r  constant
 k in x-y plane

Let a plane wave whose surfaces of constant phase are parallel to z axis
j ( t  k x x  k y y )
p  Ae
kx
surfaces of constant phase are given by y   x  constant
ky
kx
Plane surfaces parallel to z axis with a slope  in the x-y plane
ky

y  If p is a function of x and t at y=0

k
p ( x,0, t )  Ae j (t  k x x )

Similarly if p is a function of y and t at x=0
j ( t  k y y )
p (0, y , t )  Ae

k  k cos   k sin 
x j (t  k cos   k sin  )
p  Ae
 Specific Acoustic Impedance

Specific Acoustic Impedance p Pa.s/m or Rayl

z
u
p    0 cu z   0c

Specific Acoustic Impedance of the medium is a real quantity for

progressive plane wave this is not true for standing plane wave or for
diverging wave
z  r  jx

r is Specific Acoustic resistant

x is Specific Acoustic reactance
 Energy
1 1 V0 is the volume of the small fluid element in
E k  mu  o Vo u 2
2

2 2 the undisturbed fluid.

Change in potential energy associated with volume change from V0 to V

x V
Negative sign indicate that the potential
E p    Fdx    pdV energy will increase when its volume is
x0 V0
decreased by a positive acoustic pressure p

V  const.  dV  Vd  0

 P  p d dp
B  o   c 2
 dV  V  V 2
  c
   o 

V p
dp 1 p 2
E p    pdV   pV 2  Vo
V0 0
c 2 o c 2
 1 1 p 2
1  p 2

E  E k  E p  o u Vo 
2
Vo   o  u  2 2  Vo
2

2 2 o c 2
2  o c 

Instantaneous E 1  2 p2  p 2
E 
energy density i V
  o u  2 2 
  o u 2
 J/m3
o 2   o c   o c 2

p    0 cu
P
u cos  t  kx   U cos  t  kx 
p  P cos  t  kx  o c

1 P cos  t  kx 
T T 2 2
1 P2
Time average E  Ei   Ei dt   dt 
energy density
T
T0 T0 o c 2
2o c 2

o U 2 o U P PU
E   
2 2 o c 2c
 Average Power and Intensity

A
dE T
 Ei T
Acdt
cdt dE
 T
  EAc
dt T

 U 2
1 P 2
1
I  T
 Ec  o c   PU
T
A 2 2 o c 2

For plane waves

Effective Average - RMS
T
1 2
Fe  Frms   f  t  dt
T0

U P
Ue  Pe 
2 2

2
P
I  o cU e2  e  Pe U e
T
o c
 Spherical Waves
1  2
p
 p 2 2
2
z
c t r

x  r sin  cos 
y  r sin  sin   y
z  r cos 
x
2 2  1   1 2
 
2
  (sin  ) 2
r 2 r r r 2 sin    r sin 2   2
2 2  1  2 (rp )
 
2
  p
2

r 2 r r r r 2

1   ( rp ) 1  p 1  2 p p p  2 p 2 p
( ) (r  p)  (r   ) 
r r r r r r r r 2 r r r 2 r r
p2
Conservation of energy and the relationship I  lead to that the pressure
2  0c
amplitude might fall off as 1/r, so that the quantity rp would have amplitude independent
of r  2 ( rp ) 1  2 ( rp )
 2
r 2 c t 2
 1 1 For all r>0
p  f1 (ct  r )  f 2 (ct  r )
r r

A spherical wave A spherical wave

diverging from origin converging at origin

At r=0 the solution fails

 For out going waves solution fails at origin because some source of sound is
required to supply the energy carried away but wave equation does not contain any
term representing this energy source.So its means that the medium must be
excluded from some volume of space including the origin which will be occupied by
the sound source
 For incoming waves energy is being focused at the origin and the small amplitude
approximations will fail.  this will manifest itself in a nonlinear wave equation and
strong acoustic losses.
 A j (t  kr )
p e 
r 0  p
 p t
 
j 0
 j
u    r
ˆ (1  ) p / 0c
kr
p
z
u kr
z  0c e j   0 c cos e j
1  (kr )  2 1/ 2

1  (kr ) 2 Angle  is a function of the ratio of the source

1
distance to the wave length

kr 2r
kr 

 kr
z  0c e j   0 c cos e j
1  (kr ) 
2 1/ 2

2r
kr  cot   kr

Angle  is a function of the ratio of the source distance to the
wave length

 If the distance from the source is only a small fraction of a

wavelength the phase difference between the complex pressure
and partial speed is large.

 At distances corresponding to a considerable number of

wavelength then phase difference and partial speed are very
nearly in phase
 kr
z  0c e j   0 c cos e j
1  (kr ) 2 1/ 2
cos  
kr
2 1  ( kr ) 2
(kr ) kr
z  0c  j 0 c

1  ( kr ) 2
 
1  (kr ) 2  sin  
1
1  ( kr ) 2

Acoustic resistance Acoustic reactance

For large value of kr the z  0c

For small value of kr the z0

 A j (t  kr )
p e
r
j
p A j (t  kr )
u  e z   0 c cos  e
z zr
A j (t  kr ) A j (t  kr  )
u e  e
 0 c cos e j r  0 c cos r
A
A P
p (real )  cos(t  kr )  P cos(t  kr ) r
r
A
cos(t  kr   )  U cos(t  kr   ) U   c cos r
A
u (real ) 
 0 c cos r 0

P  U 0 c cos 
1 T PU cos  P2
I
T 0
P cos(t  kr )U cos(t  kr   )dt 
2

2 0c
Average Energy flows through a closed spherical surface of radius r

2 2 2
P P A
  4r 2 I  4r 2  2r 2  2
2 0c  0c 0c
Independent of r
A
P
r r P2 A2
I  2
2  0 c 2r  0 c

If we double the radius r1  2r

A2 A2 A2 I
I1  2   
2r1  0 c 2(2r )  0 c 2(4r )  0 c 4
2 2

I1 will be drop by 6dBInverse square law

 p2 P2
Intensity of sound I  
o c 2o c
• Loudness – intensity of the wave. Energy transported by a
wave per unit time across a unit area perpendicular to the
energy flow.

Source Intensity (W/m2) Sound Level

Jet Plane 100 140
Pain Threshold 1 120
Siren 1x10-2 100
Busy Traffic 1x10-5 70
Conversation 3x10-6 65
Whisper 1x10-10 20
Rustle of leaves 1x10-11 10
Hearing Threshold 1x10-12 1
 Sound Level - Decibel
 I  I ref  1x10 12 W
IL  10 log   m2
 I ref 
 Why the decibel?

• Ears judge loudness on a logarithmic vice

linear scale
I
• Alexander Graham Bell "bel"  log
1 I ref
• deci =
10
• 1 bel = 10 decibel
 I 
IL(in dB)  10 log  
 I ref 
 Reference Level Conventions
p 2ref
I ref =
o c

Reference Reference
Location
Intensity Pressure

Air 1 x 10-12 W/m2 20 Pa

Water 6.67 x 10-19 W/m2 1 uPa

 Sound Pressure Level
Mean Squared Quantities:  I 
Power, Energy, Intensity
IL  10 log  
 I ref 
“Intensity Level”

Root Mean Squared Quantities:

Voltage, Current, Pressure
 p2 
SPL  20 log    20 log p rms
 p ref  p ref
 
“Sound Pressure Level”
A. The sound source produces 60 dBm power and the sound is propagated as a
spherical wave. What is the sound intensity for a person hearing it from 50 m
away?

B. An earth quake wave was traveling through the earth and the intensity
detected 100 Km from source was 5.0x 106 W/m2. What is the intensity of the
earth quake wave at a distance 400 km from the source?
 Decibels and Percentages

  dB

% change= 1001  10 
10

 
 10dB 
% change= 10010  1
 
 
 %change 
dB  M log b 1   Below Reference
 100 

 %change  Above Reference

dB  M log b   1
 100 
1. An anechoic chamber absorbs 99% of the power and reflect
only 1%. What percent of the initial sound pressure level(SPL)
is reflected

Wi =100 W Reflected power=1W

100
10 log  20dB  99% power absorbed
1
 20

% change= 1001  10   90%
20

 

So reflected SPL=100-90=10%
2. A sound system gain is increased by 15dB. What is the %
power increase

 10
15

% change= 10010  1  3062%
 
3. An acoustic signal is reflected off of a surface that is 80%
absorptive, the reflected signal will be drop by how many dB?

  80 
dB  10 log10 1    6.99dB
 100 
4. Input voltage of a loudspeaker is raised by 30% what will be
the amount of increase in Lp