JOINING AND ASSEMBLY PROCESSES

The term joining is generally used for welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding,
which form a permanent joint.

The term assembly usually refers to mechanical methods of fastening parts together. Some
of these methods allow for easy disassembly, while others do not.

WELDING is a process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing

coalescence (Union/combination/amalgamation/merger)
• By heating up to temperature enough to soften or melt the material
• With or without applying pressure
• With or without filler metal

WELDING MECHANISM
1. Base Metal/Parent metal/material is Melted or heated
2. Coalescence is formed
3. Solidification
WELDING FUNCTIONS
1. Means of fabrication
2. Repair and maintenance
WELDING APPLICATION AREAS
Aircraft, Automotive, ship building, Machine tools, oil drilling & refining equipment's,
Ornamental iron work, Rail road equipment's, Industrial construction etc
 WELDING SIGNIFICANCE IN MANUFACTURING

1. Greater design flexibility

2. Elimination pattern if made by casting
3. Replaced riveting by saving cost up to 35%
4. Less time and more production
5. Reduced inventory cost up to 10% compared with
casting
6. Expensive parts if repaired saves replacements cost
 WELDING LIMITATIONS AND DRAWBACKS

• Most welding operations are expensive because they are performed manually, skilled
labor is required .
• Due to use of high energy welding processes are inherently dangerous.
• Since it is type permanent joint thus disassembly of these joint is difficult. As product
may be needed to dismantled for repair work.
• The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that are difficult to detect.The
defects can reduce the strength of the joint.
 WELDING SAFETY

1. For arc welding a full helmet covering the face is used

2. Protect your entire body with fire retardant clothing, shoes, and gloves.

3. Welding and cutting both create hot sparks, make sure there are no flammable

substances or objects nearby.

4. Never weld without adequate ventilation.

5. Welded metal is very hot, use gloves when welding and tongs to handle the hot parts.

6. Remove batteries from autos or machinery before welding in their vicinity, batteries emit

hydrogen which is very explosive.

7. Wear eye protection when welding and chipping slag from the weld.

8. Never do welding on gas tanks, used drums or containers of any kind.

 CLASSIFICATION OF THE WELDING PROCESS

Classification of common welding processes along with their AWS (American Welding
Society) designations.
 TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES

Welding processes into two major groups:

(1) Fusion welding
Processes use heat to melt the base metals. In many fusion welding operations, a filler
metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to
the welded joint.
I. Arc welding (AW)
II. Resistance welding (RW)
III. Ox fuel gas welding (OFW)
IV. Electron beam welding & laser beam welding.

(2) solid-state welding: Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which coalescence
results from application of pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure. In these
process material remain in solid state at their joining positions.
No filler metal is utilized. Different types of solid –state welding.

• Diffusion welding (DFW)

• Friction welding (FRW)
• Ultrasonic welding (USW)
 OXYFUEL GAS WELDING - OFW
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)- commonly known as gas welding refers to a group of welding
processes that use gaseous fuel as heat source, the flame produced by the combustion of a
fuel gas and oxygen.

Oxyfuel-gas welding (OFW) is a general term used to describe any welding process that uses
a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame. The flame is the source of the heat that
is used to melt the metals at the joint. Although several fuel gases could be used, acetylene
is by far the most common and useful.

There are three major processes within this group:

1- oxy-acetylene welding
2- oxy-hydrogen welding
3- pressure gas welding

Fuel Gasses
 Propane (LPG)
 Natural Gas
 Acetylene
 Hydrogen
OXY ACETYELENE WELDING TORCH
OXY ACETYELENE FLAME TYPES
OXY ACETYELENE FLAMES USED IN WELDING
 APPLICATIONS
OFW can be used for on a variety of metals. However, the majority of applications will be
found in thin gauge steel and repair welding of steel and cast iron. Although some
nonferrous metals (such as Al and Cu) can be oxyfuel welded, other processes are more
suitable.

Fluxes are generally used for alloys that readily oxidize. (Bronze, cast iron, brass, stainless
and aluminum)

The purpose of a flux is to:

• Remove oxides and other impurities from the surface.
• Protect the puddle from the atmosphere and prevent reaction with or absorption of flame
gases.

Primary uses today are

 heating,
 bending
 stress relieving and
 cutting
 PRESSURE GAS WELDING
Pressure gas welding is a welding process where welded parts are pressed to each
other when heated by a gas flame. This technique is commonly used for joining
pipes, rods and railroad rails. Pressure gas welding does not use filler metals.

Pressure gas welding (PGW) is a process that uses equipment similar to the oxyfuel-gas
process to produce butt joints between the ends of objects such as pipe and railroad rail.

The ends are heated with a gas flame to a temperature below the melting point, and
the soft metal is then forced together under pressure. Pressure gas welding, therefore,
is actually a form of solid-state welding where the gas flame simply softens the metal
and coalescence is produced by pressure.
 ARC WELDING
As the electricity production increased in the late nineteenth century, it was soon
recognized that an arc between two electrodes was a concentrated heat source
that could produce temperatures approaching 4000°C.

A carbon rod was selected as one electrode and the metal work-piece became
the other.

As the process developed, the filler metal replaced the carbon rod as the upper
electrode. The metal wire not only carried the welding current but, as it melted in
the arc, it also supplied the necessary filler.

Shielded metal electrodes were developed around 1920.

These electrodes enhanced the stability of the arc by shielding it from the
atmosphere and provided a fluxing action to the molten pool.
 ARC WELDING
An electric arc is the form of electric discharge with low voltage and very high current
density . Arc welding is very much cheaper than oxy-acetylene welding. It also produces
higher temperatures and greater amounts of heat energy, enabling much thicker sections to
be welded successfully . The ‘ arc ’ is produced by a low-voltage, high-amperage current
jumping the air gap between the electrode and the joint to be welded.

The electrodes are either consumable or non- consumeable.

All arc-welding processes employ the basic circuit depicted in Figure below . Welding
currents vary from 1 to 4000 amps, with the range from 100 to 1000 being most typical.
Voltages are generally in the range of 20 to 50 volts. Arc between two electrodes is a
concentrated heat source that could produce temperatures approaching 4000°C.
 ARC WELDING
If direct current is used and the electrode is made negative, the condition is known as straight
polarity or DCEN, for direct-current electrode-negative. In either case it is reverse polarity.

Welding currents with electrode-positive (reverse) polarity result in deeper penetration, while
electrode-negative (straight) polarity has the benefit of faster melt-off and faster deposition rate.

Electrons are attracted to the positive work-piece, while ionized atoms in the arc column are
accelerated toward the negative electrode.

Since the ions are far more massive than the electrons, the heat of the arc is more concentrated
at the electrode.

In one group of arc-welding processes, the electrode is consumed (consumable electrode

processes) and thus supplies the metal needed to fill the joint.

Consumable electrodes have a melting temperature below the temperature of the arc.
Small droplets are melted from the end of the electrode and pass to the work piece.
 ARC WELDING
The size of these droplets varies greatly, and the transfer mechanism depends on the
type of electrode, welding current, and other process parameters. Following Figure depicts
metal transfer by the globular, spray, and short-circuit transfer modes.

The second group of arc-welding processes employs a tungsten electrode, which is

not consumed by the arc, except by relatively slow vaporization.

In these non-consumable electrode processes, a separate metal wire is required to

supply the filler metal.
Filler materials must be selected to match the base metal with respect to properties
and/or alloy content (chemistry)
 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
Electrodes used in the Shielded Metal Arc-Welding (GMAW) process are coated
electrodes. The coated electrodes consists of a wire core of suitable composition surrounded
by a concentric covering of a flux and/or other materials which will melt uniformly along with
the core wire to form a partly gas shield and partly molten shield (slag) around the arc
stream.
The shielding gas around the welding area protects the parent and filler metal from
impurities in the air . This shield also protects the arc from contamination by atmospheric
gases. On the other hand, the liquid slag that is produced performs three important functions:

1. It protects the solidifying weld metal from atmospheric contamination.

2. It prevents the weld metal cooling too rapidly .
3. It controls the contour of the completed weld.

.
 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
Before the introduction of coated electrodes, bare wire electrodes were used. They were
much more difficult to use and, because they have no flux, no protective shield is
produced, resulting in an arc that is less powerful and which tends to ‘ short out ’ more easily
.
 WAKE UP FROM DEEP SLEEP

what is difference b/w fusion welding & Solid State welding?

How the filler metal is melted in gas welding process?

Is the temperature inside the flame is same throughout its length?

How arc is produced? Mechanism

What are functions of electrode in SMAW, GMAW & TIG?

 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
Consumable Electrode gets melted during the welding process. It is composed of
two parts, Core rod (Metal filler) & an extruded flux coating

The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel and the weld quality is
refined by the addition of alloying and refining agents in the flux coating

The flux coating contains many elements and compounds that all have a variety
of functions during welding.
 FUNCTIONS OF COATING
• To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
• To generate gas for shielding the arc &
molten metal from air contamination
• To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities
into the slag
• To form a protective slag blanket over the
solidifying and cooling weld metal
• To provide alloying elements to give the
required weld metal properties
• To aid positional welding (slag design to have
suitable freezing temperature to support the
molten weld metal)
• To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic
type)
 Gas-metal arc welding (GMAW)
• Gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) - uses a shield of inert or non-reactive gas to
prevent contamination of the work-piece and filler material.
• Filler material is supplied by a consumable, bare, solid wire electrode, that is
fed continuously by the welding gun from a reel or coil as the operation
proceeds.
• An arc between the electrode and the work provides the necessary welding
heat. This method was formerly designated as metal-inert-gas (MIG) welding.
 Gas-metal arc welding (GMAW)
• Argon, helium or carbon dioxide or a mixture of them, are the most commonly
used shielding gases.

• The shielding gas is also fed through the welding gun. The process is
illustrated in following figure.

• The GMAW process is less labor intensive and faster than stick welding
because welding-rod changes are not required and there is no slag to be chipped
away .
 Tungsten Inert Gas welding
• It is non-consumable electrode arc welding process.
• It is commonly referred to as TIG or Tungsten Inert Gas welding.
• It is a process, which uses a non-consumable solid tungsten electrode. Instead of a
flux, a shielding gas is used to protect the molten puddle from the atmosphere which
results in a weld without slag.
• If a filler metal is necessary, it is added to the leading edge of the molten puddle.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF GTAW
Electrode
• The electrode material for GTAW is made from a tungsten alloy.
• Tungsten has one of the highest melting temperatures of any metal about 3,410oC.

Filler Wire
• Material consumed during welding and become the part of weld joint. It is generally
covered with copper coating to resist corrosion.

Arc
• An electric arc occurs in the gas filled space between the electrode tip and the work piece
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF GTAW
The advantages of GTAW welding include very high weld quality, absence of slag and
very little spatter. The method is extremely versatile, since most weldable materials can
be GTAW welded and many welding positions and joint configurations can be used.

GTAW welding can be used:

Weld thin metals and small objects, the method is also used in the electronic industry.
Welding of pipes, pressure vessels and heat exchangers.
 THE WELD JOINT (TYPES OF JOINTS)
Welding produces a solid connection between two pieces, called a weld joint.

A weld joint is the junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been joined by
welding.

There are five basic types of joints for bringing two parts together for joining

(a) Butt (b) Corner (c) Lap (d) Tee (e) Edge
 TYPES OF WELDS
Differences among weld types are in geometry (joint type) and welding process.

A fillet weld is used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner, lap, and tee Joints.

(a) inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double
fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint. Dashed lines show the original part
edges.
 SOLDERING AND BRAZING

Soldering and brazing are processes of joining materials together

using a heating method and melting filler metal without melting the
base materials.

Soldering and brazing process lie some where in between fusion

welding and solid state welding.

These processes have some advantages over welding process. These

can join the metal having poor weldability , dissimilar metals, very less
amount of heating is needed.

The major disadvantage is joint made by soldering and brazing has

low strength as compared to welded joint.
 SOLDERING AND BRAZING

In brazing and soldering, the surfaces to be joined are first cleaned,

the components assembled or fixtured, and a low-melting-point
nonferrous metal is then melted, drawn into the space between the two
solids by capillary action, and allowed to solidify .

In soldering, the filler metal has a liquidus (melting point) below

800°F (425°C).

Common solders are alloys of tin and lead. Antimony and silver are
also included in some solders in lesser percentages.

The term ‘ brazing ’ is derived from the fact that the filler material is a brass
(i.e alloy of copper and zinc ) containing 40% copper and 60% zinc melts at
about 850°C to produce a strong and malleable joint.
 SOLDERING

In soldering, the filler metal has melting point below 800°F (425°C).
Common solders are alloys of tin and lead. Antimony and silver are also
included in some solders in lesser percentages.

It is typically used for joining thin metals, connecting electronic components,

joining metals while avoiding exposure to high elevated temperatures, and
filling surface flaws and defects.

Solder that is made of 60% tin and 40% lead. 60/40 is the most commonly used type of solder for
hand soldering. This percentage can vary.
SOLDERING
 BRAZING

The term ‘ brazing ’ is derived from the fact that the filler material is a
brass alloy of copper and zinc and a typical containing 40% copper and 60%
zinc to produce a strong and malleable joint.

Brazing is the permanent joining of similar or dissimilar metals or ceramics

(or composites based on those two materials) through the use of heat and a
filler metal whose melting temperature is above 450°C (840°F) but below
the melting point (or solidus temperature) of the materials being joined.

Brazing is defined as a process of joining metals in which the molten filler

material is drawn into the gap between the closely adjacent surfaces of the
metals being joined by capillary attraction.
COMPARISON BETWEEN WELDING, SOLDERING &
BRAZING
COMPARISON BETWEEN WELDING, SOLDERING &
BRAZING
 HEAT AFFECTED ZONE IN WELDING

Cross section of a typical fusion-welded joint: (a) principal zones in the joint and (b) typical
grain structure.
 WELDABILITY
Since all joining processes are not compatible for all engineering materials.
Weld-ability imply a reliable measure of a material’s ability to be welded or joined, they are
actually quite nebulous.
Within a given process, the quality of results may vary greatly with variations in the process
parameters, such as electrode material, shielding gases, welding speed, and cooling rate.
The process is classified as
Recommended (R), commonly performed (C),
performed with some difficulty (D), seldom used (S),
and not used (N).
 THEORY OF RESISTANCE WELDING (SPOT WELDING)

In resistance welding, heat and pressure are combined to induce coalescence.

Electrodes are placed in contact with the material, and electrical resistance heating is
used to raise the temperature of the workpieces and the interface between them.
The same electrodes that supply the current also apply the pressure, which is usually
varied throughout the weld cycle. A certain amount of pressure is applied initially to hold
the workpieces in contact and thereby control the electrical resistance at the interface.
When the proper temperature has been attained, the pressure is increased to induce
coalescence. Because pressure is utilized, coalescence occurs at a lower temperature
than that required for oxyfuel gas or arc welding.
The amount of heat input can be determined by the basic relationship:
 SPOT WELDING
Resistance welding, therefore, is a very rapid and economical process, extremely well suited to
automated manufacturing. No filler metal is required, and the tight contact maintained between
the workpieces excludes air and eliminates the need for fluxes or shielding gases.

Steps in Spot Welding

(1) parts inserted between open electrodes,

(2) Electrodes close and force is applied,
(3) weld time current is switched on,
(4) current is turned off but force is maintained or increased
(5) Electrodes are opened, and the welded assembly is
removed.
 SPOT WELDING
This process is used to join sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm or less, using a series
of spot welds, in situations where an airtight assembly is not required.

The size and shape of the weld spot is determined by the electrode tip, the most
common electrode shape being round, but hexagonal, square, and other shapes are
also used.

BMW PLANT GERMANY: SPOT WELDING OF BMW CAR BODIES

 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
Electron beam is widely used in various industrial applications such as for machining (Non-
traditional material removal), welding & heat treatment.

Electron beam is high velocity stream of electrons focused on the work piece surface to remove
material and for welding purpose. A schematic of the EBM process is illustrated in Figure 26.12.
An electron beam gun generates a
continuous stream of electrons that is
accelerated to approximately 75% of the
speed of light and focused through an
electromagnetic lens on the work surface.

On impinging the surface, the kinetic energy

of the electrons is converted into thermal
energy of extremely high density that melts
or vaporizes the material in a very localized
area.
 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
It is is a fusion-welding process in which the heat for welding is produced by a highly
focused, high-intensity stream of electrons impinging against the work surface.

To avoid a collision of the accelerating electrons with the air molecules, the process has
to be conducted in vacuum. So EBM is not suitable for large work pieces.

Applications:
EBW is applied mostly in the
automotive, aerospace, and nuclear
industries. In the automotive
industry, EBW assembly includes
aluminum manifolds,
steel torque converters, catalytic
converters, and transmission
components.
 LASER-BEAM WELDING
Laser-beam welding (LBW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence is
achieved by the energy of a highly concentrated, coherent light beam focused on the
joint to be welded. Sometimes the laser beam is focused onto the work-piece by
a set of mirrors.
The term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
When the laser beam is moved relative to the work-piece, the energy of the
focused laser beam melts the metal so that a joint is formed.
To prevent oxidation shielding gases (e.g., helium, argon, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide)
are used in LBW. Filler metal is not usually added.
 LASER-BEAM WELDING
LBW produces welds of high quality, deep penetration, and narrow heat-affected
zone.
Maximum depth in laser welding is about 19 mm (0.75 in).
 THERMIT WELDING

It is a type of fusion-welding process in which the heat for coalescence is produced by

superheated molten metal from the chemical reaction of Thermit.
Thermit is a mixture of aluminum powder and iron oxide that produces an exothermic
reaction when ignited.
An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy by heat.
The mixed powders of aluminum and iron oxide (in a 1:3 mixture), ignited at a
temperature of around 1300C (2300F). chemical reaction is as follow:

Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated metal flows into mold;
(3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint.
 THERMIT WELDING

As the entering metal is so hot, it melts the edges of the base parts, causing
coalescence upon solidification.

After cooling, the mold is broken away, and the gates and risers are removed by
oxyacetylene torch or other method.

Thermit welding has applications in joining of railroad rails, and repair of cracks in large
steel castings and forgings such as ingot molds, large diameter shafts, frames for
machinery, and ship rudders.
 Assignment

Read and understand ultrasonic welding

process.
 WELD QUALITY
The purpose of any welding process is to join two or more components into a single structure.

The physical integrity of the structure thus formed depends on the quality of the weld.

Residual Stresses and Distortion

The rapid heating and cooling in localized regions of the work , result in thermal expansion and
contraction that cause residual stresses in the weldment.

These stresses, in turn, can cause distortion and warping of the welded assembly.

The situation in welding is complicated because

(1) heating is very localized,
(2) melting of the base metals occurs in these local regions,
(3) the location of heating and melting is in motion (at least in arc welding).
 WELD QUALITY
Consider, for example, butt welding as shown in Figure(a).

The operation begins at one end and travels to the opposite end.
As it proceeds, a molten pool is formed from the base metal (and filler metal, if used) that
quickly solidifies behind the moving arc.

The portions of the work immediately adjacent to the weld bead/drop become extremely hot
and expand, while portions removed from the weld remain relatively cool.

The weld pool quickly solidifies in the cavity between the two parts, and as it and the
surrounding metal cool and contract, shrinkage occurs across the width of the weldment, as
seen in Figure(b).

(a) Butt welding two plates; (b) shrinkage across the width of the welded assembly
 WELD QUALITY
The weld seam is left in residual tension, and reactionary compressive stresses are set up in
regions of the parts away from the weld.
Since the outer regions of the base parts have remained relatively cool and dimensionally
unchanged, while the weld bead has solidified from very high temperatures and then
contracted, residual tensile stresses remain longitudinally in the weld bead.
These transverse and longitudinal stress patterns are shown in Figure(c).

The net result of these residual stresses, transversely and longitudinally, is likely to cause
warping in the welded assembly as shown in Figure(d).

(c) transverse and longitudinal residual stress pattern; and d) likely warping
in the welded assembly.
 WELD DEFFECTS
In addition to residual stresses and distortion, other defects can occur in welding.
Following are major categories of welding defects.

1-Cracks. Cracks are fracture-type interruptions either in the weld itself or in the base
metal adjacent to the weld.

This is perhaps the most serious welding defect because it constitutes a discontinuity in
the metal that significant reduces weld strength.

Welding cracks are caused by low ductility of the weld and/or base metal combined with
high restraint during contraction.
 WELD DEFECTS
2-Cavities. These include various porosity and shrinkage voids/vacuum. Porosity
consists of small voids in the weld metal formed by gases entrapped during
solidification. The shapes of the voids vary between spherical (blow holes) to elongated
(worm holes).

Porosity/Penetrability usually results from inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in

the weld metal, or contaminants on the surfaces. Shrinkage voids are cavities
formed by shrinkage during solidification.
 WELD DEFECTS
3- Solid inclusions. These are nonmetallic solid materials trapped inside the weld
metal.
The most common form is slag inclusions generated during arc-welding processes that
use flux. Instead of floating to the top of the weld pool, globules of slag become encased
during solidification of the metal.
4- Incomplete fusion. It is also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld bead in
which fusion has not occurred throughout the entire cross section of the joint. A related
defect is lack of penetration which means that fusion has not penetrated deeply enough
into the root of the joint.
5-Imperfect contour. The weld should have a certain desired profile for maximum
strength for a single V-groove weld. This weld profile maximizes the strength of the
welded joint and avoids incomplete fusion and lack of penetration.
 INSPECTION AND TESTING METHODS
A variety of inspection and testing methods are available to check the quality of the
welded joint.
These inspection and testing procedures can be divided into three categories:
(1) visual,
2- Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) includes various methods that do not
damage/destruct the specimen being inspected.
Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests
Magnetic particle testing
Ultrasonic testing
Radiographic testing
(3) DESTRUCTIVE.
Mechanical tests
Mechanical tests used in welding: (a) tension–shear test of arc weldment, (b) fillet break
test, (c) tension–shear test of spot weld, (d) peel test for spot weld.

Metallurgical tests involve the preparation of metallurgical specimens of the weldment

to examine such features as metallic structure, defects, extent and condition of heat-
affected zone, presence of other elements, and similar phenomena.