Contents

• Environment and Society

• Classification of Environment
• Relationship b/w Human and Environment
• Effects of Human Activities on Environment
• Environmental Disturbances
• Ozone Depletion
• Acid Rain
• Green House Effect
• Sustainable Development
 Environment and Society
• Environment can be described as the natural world of
land, water, air, plants and animals.
• It forms basis of our existence and development.
• Environment refers to surrounding external conditions
influencing development or growth of people,
animals, plants, living or working conditions etc.
• In the beginning, the environment of early man had
consisted of only physical aspect of planet earth (land
, air and water) and biotic communities (plants and
animals).
• By advancement of society, man extended his
environment through his social, economical and
political functions.
• Biosphere:
• The physical elements of environment (space, land, water
bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals) and biological
elements (plants, animals, micro organism and man)
constitute the biosphere.
• The environment includes both the abiotic (non-living) and
biotic (living) components.

• Classification of Environment
• On the basis of basic structure, the environment can be
divided as
(i) Physical (abiotic), and (ii) Biological (biotic)
environment.
• Physical (abiotic) environment is subdivided as,
(i) Lithosphere (solid earth), (ii) Hydrosphere (water
Relation b/w human and environment
• The relationship of human and environment has influenced
the development of human society.
• In this context, 3 aspects of human are;
i. Physical man is a component of the biological communities and as
such requires basic elements of physical environment such as air,
water, food and habitat etc. Like others biological populations and
release wastes in the ecosystem.
ii. Social man establishes the social institutions, forms the social
organizations and formulates laws and policies to safeguards his
existence.
iii. Economical man derives and utilize resources from the physical
and biological environment with his skills and technologies.
The changing relationship b/w human and
environment (Pre-historical to modern times)
• Period of hunting and food gathering.
• Period of animal domestic action and pastoralism.
• Period of plant domestication and agriculture.
• Period of science, technology and industrialization.
• Biosphere:
• The physical elements of environment (space, land, water
bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals) and biological
elements (plants, animals, micro organism and man)
constitute the biosphere.
• Biosphere is a life supporting layer which surrounds the
earth and makes plat and animal life possible.
• It consists of all the living organism, energy and physical
environment.
• There are continuous interactions between living organisms
and physical environment.
• The avg. thickness of the biosphere or life supporting layer
consists of air, water, soil and rock is about 30 km.
• The upper limit of biosphere is determined by the
availability of O2, moisture, temperature, and air.
• The lower limit of the biosphere is determined by the
availabilities of required amount of O2 and light which can
sustain life.
• Thus the depth of the biosphere over the land is upto the
depth of the deepest root of the trees or the depth upto
which burrowing organism can live.
• Effect of human activities on environment:
• The impact of modern technologies has led to series of
changes in the biotic and abiotic components.
• Disturbance in one of the element of nature (air, water,
land, etc.) gives rise to an imbalance in others.
• Human factors sometimes aggravate natural
environment process to cause disaster (earthquake,
floods, cyclones etc.) for human society.
• They result in heavy loss of life and properties.
• Environmental hazards for human health are as follows:
• Air pollution causes respiratory diseases (asthma, chronic
obstructive)
• Water pollution causes enteric diseases
• Solid waste pollution causes vector-borne diseases (infections)
• Toxic waste causes cancer and neurological disorders
Environmental disturbances
• OZONE DEPLETION
• The ozone layer is a thin layer of gas (O3) 15-50 kms above the
earth.
• The ozone layer protects us from excessive levels of harmful
ultraviolet radiation.
• Ozone depletion refers to the thinning of the ozone layer,
which allows more ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth’s
surface.
• Thinning of ozone layer was discovered in 1980s and ozone
holes at north and south poles.
• Major cause for ozone depletion is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• These are the chemicals invented in 1920s, used in refrigerator
and air-conditioner, coolant, foam, solvent, aerosol spray cans.
• CFCs are very harmful to ozone, especially at cold temperature
(north and south poles).
• United nations environmental program is working on reducing
the use of ozone depleting chemicals.
• Montréal protocol (1987) is an agreement b/w industrialized
countries to reduce and eventually to stop the use of CFCs and
Consequences of ozone depletion
• EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH
– High exposure to UV radiation can weaken the human
immunity; cause skin and eye cancer.
• EFFECT ON PLANT LIFE
– Unacceptable growth of plants, lead to the loss of plant
species, reduce crop yield, water logging etc.
• EFFECT ON MARINE ECOSYSTEM
– Reduce phytoplankton members, damage the early
developmental stages of fish and other marine life

Substitute for CFCs = hydroflurocarbons

Acid Rain
• Acid rain is basically rain that has a lighter than normal
acid level (10 ph)
CAUSES:
• Burning coal, oil and natural gas in power stations
makes electricians giving off Sulphur dioxide.
• Burning petrol and oil in vehicle engines gives off
Nitrogen Oxides as gases.
• These gases mix with water vapour and rainwater in
the atmosphere producing weak solutions of
Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid, which fall as acid rain.
S02+0.5O2+H20 H2SO4; When SO2 reacts with O2
and water vapour
N205+H20 2HNO3 ( Nitric acid)
• Acid rain can travel long distances often it doesn’t fall
where the gas is produced.
• High chimneys disperse the gases and winds blow them
great distances before they dissolve and fall to earth as
rain.
• Acid rain is extremely destructive form of pollution and
environment suffers from its effect.
• Forests, trees, lakes, animals, buildings etc. suffer from
acid rain
• The leaves of the trees turn brown and fall off.
• Plants can also suffer from their natural growth and
have damaged bark and leaves, which makes them
vulnerable to weather, diseases through insects.
• Toxic acid may enter the body through food chain and
can cause brain damage, other diseases.
Remedial measures

i. Removal of SO2 from power station chimneys, which

is an expensive process.
ii. Reducing the usage of electricity.
iii. Use of renewable energy resources like wind, solar
energy et.
iv. Fixing catalytic converters to vehicle exhausts which
removes nitrogen oxides.
v. Encouraging public transport.
GREEN House Effect
• Green house is constructed in colder regions to
maintain higher temperature inside than that of
atmospheric temperature.
• It has a glass roof, which allows solar radiation (short
wave length radiation) to pass through and reflects the
long wave length radiation.
• The solar radiation on striking the soil surface losses
energy and becomes long wave radiation.
• This mechanism keeps the green house warmer than the
outer atmosphere.
• In similar way, the earth’s atm. Blocks up solar energy
and hence it acts like green house, where CO2 act like
glass roof.
• CO2 and water vapour in atm. Transmit short
wavelength of solar radiation but reflect the long wave
Continued……
• Thus green house effect can be diffused as the
progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to
release of CO2 into the atm. By man activities.
• In other words, it is a phenomenon due to which earth
retain heat excessive in the presence of green house
gases (CO2, CO4, CFC’s and N2O) block the infrared
radiation from the earth’s surface in the atm. leading to
an increase in temperature.
• Which makes the life difficult on earth.
Impact of GREEN House Effect
• As a result of rise in temperature of the earth, the
glaciers are melting and sea water level would rise.
• Plants and animals will be effected leading to ecosystem
imbalance.
• The crop yield will be severely effected. Cropping
pattern need to be changed to suit climate conditions.
• The winter will be shorter and warmer.
• The summer will be longer and much warmer.
• A weather climate is likely to make some cities
extremely hot.
Sustainable Development
• Development is a process that can not be stopped and
should not be stopped. But the human developmental
activities along with positive benefits are causing high
rate resource depletion and ecological degradation.
• In this context, sustainable development seems to be a
solution and implies the following factors:
• Natural resources should be continuously available for man’s
activities.
• Man’s scientific and technological achievements should
continue to improve the comfort and quality of life.
• Social disparities and inequality of opportunities should not
increase, as seems to be happening in the present day
development.
• Sustainable development should ensure the preservation
ecological diversities and stabilities. Man’s health and
happiness should not be reduced by developmental processes.
Primary needs of sustainable development
• Environmental awareness
• Modified eco-friendly technology
• Co-operation and co-ordination
Measures for sustainable development
• Population control
• Reduced consumption
• Integrated land use planning
• Water resource management
• Renewable resources
• Biosphere conservation
• Production efficiencies
• Pollution control
 Mass and Energy Transfer
• This chapter begins with a section on units of
measurement.
• Engineers need to be familiar with both the American
units of feet, pounds, hours, and degrees Fahrenheit (0F)
as well as the more recommended International System
of units (SI).
• Next, two fundamental topics: the law of conservation
of mass and the law of conservation of energy.
• These laws tell us that within any environmental system,
we theoretically should be able to account for the flow
of energy and materials into, and out of, that system.
• The law of conservation of mass, besides providing an
important tool for quantitatively tracking pollutants as
they disperse in the environment, reminds us that
pollutants have to go somewhere, and that we should
Units of Measurement
• Table 1 lists conversion factors between the SI and USCS
systems for some of the most basic units that will be
encountered. Some of the most important prefixes are
presented in Table 2.
• The concentration of some toxic substance may be measured in
parts per billion (ppb), for example, whereas a country’s rate of
energy use may be measured in thousands of billions of watts
(terawatts).
• Often, it is the concentration of some substance in air or water
that is of interest. Using the metric system in either medium,
concentrations may be based on mass (usually mg or g),
volume (usually L or m3 ), or number (usually, mol), which can
lead to some confusion.
• One mole of any substance has Avogadro’s number of
molecules in it (6.02X1023 molecules/mol) and has a mass equal
to its molecular weight.
• In unusual circumstances, the
concentration of liquid wastes may
be so high that the specific gravity
of the mixture is affected, in which
case a correction to (1) and (2) may
be required:
Question 1.
The fluoride concentration in drinking water may be increased to
help prevent tooth decay by adding sodium fluoride; however, if
too much fluoride is added, it can cause discoloring (mottling) of
the teeth. The optimum dose of fluoride in drinking water is about
0.053 mM (millimole/liter). If sodium fluoride (NaF) is purchased in
25 kg bags, how many gallons of drinking water would a bag
treat? (Assume there is no fluoride already in the water.)
• Solution: Note that the mass in the bag is the
25 kg sum of the mass of the sodium and the mass of
the fluoride in the compound. The atomic weight of
sodium is 23.0, and fluoride is 19.0, so the molecular
weight of NaF is 42.0. The ratio of sodium to fluoride
atoms in NaF is 1:1. Therefore, the mass of fluoride in the
bag is

Converting the molar concentration to a mass concentration

The mass concentration of a substance in a fluid is generically,

mass of the substance
(4)
volume of the fluid
GASES
• For most air pollution work, it is customary to express pollutant
concentrations in volumetric terms.
• For example, the concentration of a gaseous pollutant in parts
per million (ppm) is the volume of pollutant per million
volumes of the air mixture:
(5)

• To help remind us that this fraction is based on volume, it is

common to add a “v” to the ppm, giving ppmv
• At times, concentrations are expressed as mass per unit volume,
such as mg/m3 or mg/m3.
• The relationship between ppmv and mg/m3 depends on the
pressure, temperature, and molecular weight of the pollutant.
The ideal gas law helps us establish that relationship: (6)

• The mass in Eq. (6) is expressed as moles of gas. Also note the temperature is
expressed in kelvins (K), where
• There are a number of ways to express pressure; in Eq. (6), we
have used atmospheres. One atmosphere of pressure equals
101.325 kPa (Pa is the abbreviation for Pascals). One
atmosphere is also equal to 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi),
so 1 psi = 6.89 kPa. Finally, 100 kPa is called a bar, and is a
millibar, which is the unit of pressure often used in
meteorology.
Material Balance
• Everything has to go somewhere is a simple way to express one
of the most fundamental engineering principles. More precisely,
the law of conservation of mass says that when chemical
reactions take place, matter is neither created nor destroyed
(though in nuclear reactions, mass can be converted to energy).
• What this concept allows us to do is track materials, for
example pollutants, from one place to another with mass
balance equations. This is one of the most widely used tools in
analyzing pollutants in the environment.
• The first step in a mass balance analysis is to define the
particular region in space that is to be analyzed. This is often
called the control volume.
• As examples, the control volume might include anything from a
glass of water or simple chemical mixing tank, to an entire coal-
fired power plant, a lake, a stretch of stream, an air basin above
a city, or the globe itself.
 • By picturing an imaginary
boundary around the region,
as is shown in above
mentioned Figure.
• We can then begin to quantify
the flow of materials across the
boundary as well as the
FIGURE A materials balance diagram. accumulation and reaction of
materials
• A substance that enters the control volume haswithin
many the region.
possible fates.
• Some of it may leave the region unchanged, some of it may
accumulate within the boundary, and some of it may be converted
to some other substance (e.g., entering CO may be oxidized to CO2
within the region).
• There is also the possibility that more substance may be produced
(e.g., CO may be produced by cigarette smoking within the control
volume of a room).
• Thus, using above mentioned Figure as a rate
The reaction guide,
maythe
be following
positive if
materials balance equation can be writtenof for
generation each substance
the substance of
is faster than
interest: its decay, or negative if it is decaying
faster than it is being produced.
• Frequently, this Eq. can be simplified. The most common
simplification results when steady state or equilibrium conditions
can be assumed.
• Equilibrium simply means that there is no accumulation of mass
with time; the system has had its inputs held constant for a long
enough time that any transients have had a chance to die out.
• Pollutant concentrations are constant.
• Hence the accumulation rate (in terms of Eq.) is set equal to zero,
and problems can usually be solved using just simple algebra.
• A second simplification to Eq., results when a substance is
conserved within the region in question, meaning there is no
reaction occurring—no radioactive decay, bacterial decomposition,
or chemical decay or generation.
• For such conservative substances, the reaction rate is 0.
• Examples of substances that are typically modeled as conservative
include total dissolved solids in a body of water, heavy metals in
soils, and carbon dioxide in air.
• Radioactive radon gas in a home or decomposing organic wastes
 Steady-State Conservative Syste
• The simplest systems to analyze
are those in which steady state
can be assumed (so the
accumulation rate equals to 0),
and the substance in question is
conservative (so the reaction rate
equals = 0). In these cases,
previous equation simplifies to the
Figure A steady-state conservative
system. Pollutants enter and leave the following:
region at the same rate. • Consider the steady-state
• The system contained within theconservative systembeshown
boundaries might a lake, in
a
section of a free flowing stream, orabove Figure.
the mass of air above a city. One
input to the system is a stream (of water or air, for instance) with a
flow rate Qs (volume/time) and pollutant concentration Cs
(mass/volume). The other input is assumed to be a waste stream with
flow rate QW and pollutant concentration Cw. The output is a mixture
with flow rate Qm and pollutant concentration Cm. If the pollutant is
conservative, and if we assume steady state conditions, then a mass
balance based on above Eq. allows us to write the following:
EXAMPLE 1. Two Polluted Streams
A stream flowing at 10.0 m3/s has a tributary feeding into
it with a flow of 5.0 m3/s. The stream’s concentration of chloride
upstream of the junction is 20.0 mg/L, and the tributary chloride
concentration is 40.0 mg/L. Treating chloride as a conservative
substance and assuming complete mixing of the two streams,
find the downstream chloride concentration.
Solution: The first step in solving a mass balance problem is to
sketch the problem, identify the “region” or control volume that
we want to analyze, and label the variables as has been done in
given Figure for this problem.
Batch Systems with Non-conservative
Pollutants
• By definition, there is no contaminant flow into or out of a
batch system, yet the contaminants in the system undergo
chemical, biological, or nuclear reactions fast enough that they
must be treated as non-conservative substances.
• A batch system (reactor) assumes that its contents are
homogeneously distributed and is often referred to as a
completely mixed batch reactor (CMBR).
• The bacterial concentration in a closed water storage tank may
be considered a non-conservative pollutant in a batch reactor
because it will change with time even though no water is fed
into or withdrawn from the tank.
• Similarly, the concentration of carbon dioxide in a poorly
ventilated room can be modeled as a non-conservative batch
system because the concentration of carbon dioxide increases
as people in the room breathe. For a batch reactor, (a)
• As discussed before, the reaction rate is the sum of the rates
of decay, which are negative, and the rates of generation,
which are positive.
• In a zero-order reaction, the rate of reaction, r(C) , of the
substance is not dependent on the amount of the substance
present and can be expressed as, (b)
• where k is a reaction rate coefficient, which has the units of
mass .volume-1 . time-1 (MgL-1T-1).
• The rate of evaporation of water from a bucket is a zero-
order reaction because the rate of loss of the water is not
dependent on the amount of water in the bucket but is only
dependent on the nearly constant surface area of the water
exposed to the air.
• Using (a) and (b), the mass balance for the zero-order
reaction of a substance in a batch reactor is
• The Eq. is written as a 0-order decay, denoted by the -ve
sign on the right-hand side of the Eq. V is the volume
• To solve the differential equation, the variables are separated
and integrated as

• which yields,

FIGURE Concentration of a substance reacting in a batch system with 0-order kinetics.

• Solving for concentration gives us
• For all non-conservative pollutants undergoing a reaction other
than 0-order, the rate of the reaction is dependent on the
concentration of the pollutant present. Although decay and
generation rates may be any order, the most commonly
encountered reaction rate for generation is zero-order, whereas
for decay it is Ist-order. The Ist-order reaction rate;

• This equation can be integrated by separation of variables and

solved similarly. When solved for concentration, it yields
• That is, assuming a first-order
reaction, the concentration of the
substance in question decays
exponentially. The first-order time
dependence of a non-conservative
pollutant’s concentration in a batch
Steady-State Systems with Non-conservative
Pollutants
• If we assume that steady-state conditions prevail and treat the
pollutants as non-conservative, then;

Figure Concentration of a substance reacting

in a batch system with 2nd-order kinetics.

• A final, simple, and useful expression for the mass balance

involving a non-conservative pollutant in a steady-state,
Problem
Solution
• We can conveniently use the lake as our control volume.
Assuming that complete and instantaneous mixing occurs in
the lake—it acts as a CSTR—implies that the concentration in
the lake, C, is the same as the concentration of the mix leaving
the lake, Cm. The units (day-1) of the reaction rate constant
indicate this is a first-order reaction.
 Environmental Chemistry
Introduction
• Almost every pollution problem that we face has a chemical
basis. Even the most qualitative descriptions of such problems
as the greenhouse effect, ozone depletion, toxic wastes,
groundwater contamination, air pollution, and acid rain, to
mention a few, require at least a rudimentary understanding of
some basic chemical concepts.
• And, of course, an environmental engineer who must design an
emission control system or a waste treatment plant must be
well grounded in chemical principles and the techniques of
chemical engineering.
• In this section, the topics have been selected with the goal of
providing only the essential chemical principles required to
understand the nature of the pollution problems that we face
and the engineering approaches to their solutions.
Stoichiometry
• When a chemical reaction is written down, it provides both
qualitative and quantitative information.
• Qualitatively, we can see which chemicals are interacting to
produce which end products. Quantitatively, the principle of
conservation of mass can be applied to give information about
how much of each compound is involved to produce the results
shown.
• The balancing of equations so that the same number of each
kind of atom appears on each side of the equation and the
subsequent calculations, which can be used to determine
amounts of each compound involved, is known as
stoichiometry.
• The first step is to balance the equation. For example, suppose
we want to investigate the combustion of methane (CH4), the
principal component of natural gas and a major greenhouse
gas. Methane combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
• The equation is not balanced. One atom of carbon appears on
each side, which is fine, but there are four atoms of hydrogen
on the left and only two on the right, and there are only two
atoms of oxygen on the left while there are three on the right.
• We might try to double the water molecules on the right to
balance the hydrogen on each side, but then there would be an
imbalance of oxygen with two on the left and four on the right.
• So try doubling the oxygen on the left.
• This sort of trial-and-error approach to balancing simple
reactions usually converges pretty quickly. In this instance, the
following is a balanced equation with the same number of C, H,
and O atoms on each side of the arrow:
• This balanced chemical equation can be read as: One molecule
of methane reacts with two molecules of oxygen to produce
one molecule of carbon dioxide and two molecules of water.
• The atomic weight of an atom is the mass of the atom
measured in atomic mass units (amu), where one amu is
defined to be exactly one-twelfth the mass of a carbon atom
having six protons and six neutrons in its nucleus.

• The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. All

isotopes of a given element have the same atomic number.
• The molecular weight of a molecule is simply the sum of the
atomic weights of all of the constituent atoms. If we divide the
mass of a substance by its molecular weight, the result is the
mass expressed in moles (mol). Usually the mass is expressed in
grams, in which case 1 mole contains molecules (Avogadro’s
number).
• To express the preceding methane reaction in grams, we need
first to find the number of grams per mole for each substance.
The atomic weight of C is 12, H is 1, and O is 16. Notice that
these values have been rounded slightly, which is common
engineering practice. Thus, the molecular weights and hence
Ques. 1: What mass of carbon dioxide would be produced if
100 g of butane is (C4H10) completely oxidized to carbon
dioxide and water?
Ques. 2: Consider a 1.67 X 10-3 M glucose solution (C6H12O6) that
is completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Find the amount of
oxygen required to complete the reaction.
Ques. 3: Worldwide combustion of methane, CH4 (natural gas),
provides about 10.9 X 1016 KJ of energy per year. If methane has
an energy content of 39 X 103 kJ/m3 (at STP), what mass of CO2 is
emitted into the atmosphere each year? Also, express that
emission rate as metric tons of carbon (not CO2) per year. A metric
ton, which is 1,000 kg, is usually written as tonne to distinguish it
from the 2,000-lb American, or short, ton.
Chemical Equilibria
• In the reactions considered so far, the assumption has been that
they proceed in one direction only. Most chemical reactions are,
to some extent, reversible, proceeding in both directions at
once.
• When the rates of reaction are the same—that is products are
being formed on the right at the same rate as they are being
formed on the left— the reaction is said to have reached
equilibrium.
• In this generalized reversible reaction;

• the small letters a, b, c, and d are coefficients corresponding to

the number of molecules or ions of the respective substances
that result in a balanced equation.
• The capital letters A, B, C, and D are the chemical species.
• The double arrow designation indicates that the reaction
proceeds in both directions at the same time. At equilibrium,
Ques. A lake with constant volume 10 * 106 m3 is fed by a
pollution-free stream with flow rate 50 m3/s. A factory dumps of 5
m3/s a nonconservative waste with concentration 100 mg/L into
the lake. The pollutant has a reaction rate coefficient K of
0.25/day. Assuming the pollutant is well mixed in the lake, find the
steady-state concentration of pollutant in the lake.
Solution
Ques. The two-pond system shown in Figure is fed by a stream
with flow rate 1.0 MGD (millions gallons per day) and BOD (a
nonconservative pollutant) concentration 20.0 mg/L. The rate of
decay of BOD is 0.30/day. The volume of the first pond is 5.0
million gallons, and the second is 3.0 million. Assuming complete
mixing within each pond, find the BOD concentration leaving each
pond.
Solution
Ques. A lagoon is to be designed to accommodate an input
flow of 0.10 m3/s of nonconservative pollutant with
concentration 30.0 mg/L and reaction rate 0.20/day. The
effluent from the lagoon must have pollutant concentration
of less than 10.0 mg/L. Assuming complete mixing, how
large must the lagoon be?
Solution
Ques. A simple way to model air pollution over a city is with
a box model that assumes complete mixing and limited
capability for the pollution to disperse horizontally or
vertically except in the direction of the prevailing winds (for
example, a town located in a valley with an inversion layer
above it). Consider a town having an inversion at 250 m, a
20-km horizontal distance perpendicular to the wind, a wind
speed of 2 m/s, and a carbon monoxide (CO) emission rate
of 60 kg/s (see Figure). Assume the CO is conservative and
completely mixed in the box. What would be the CO
concentration in the box?
 Solution

Ques. Silt Removal in a Clarifier

A drinking water treatment plant uses a circular sedimentation
basin to treat 3.0 MGD of river water. (MGD stands for million
gallons per day and is a common U.S. measure of flow rate
used for water and wastewater treatment. 1.0 MGD = 0.0438
m3/s). After storms occur upstream, the river often carries
0.010 mm silt particles with an average density of 2.2 g/cm3,
and the silt must be removed before the water can be used.
The plant’s clarifier is 3.5 m deep and 21 m in diameter. The
water is 15°C. What is the hydraulic detention time of the
clarifier?
Solution

Ques. Silt Flocculation Before Sedimentation

Example2/297
To improve their settling, the 0.010 mm silt particles in
previous Example are completely destabilized by adding alum
and are passed through one of two side-by-side, well-mixed
flocculation chambers. The chambers are cubic with each
dimension being 3.5 m. They are mixed with paddle mixers
that input 2.50 kW of power into the water in each chamber.
The water entering the flocculation chamber contains 105
Thank you