Chapter 2 Motivational theories of leadership

Introduction:
why do people work?
For many reasons:

 For money

 For love of their work

 For the status they receive, Etc

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Introduction…

Two important things are necessary to perform Work

 People have ability

to work

 People have willingness

Two important things are necessary to perform…

 Knowledge, Skills & attitude are Meaningless Without willingness

 we can not buy Willingness
Ability = Fulfilled by training & development
Willingness = Fulfilled by motivation

♣ work = Ability to do + willingness to do

 Defining Motivation
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 An individual's internal process that energizes, directs & sustains behavior. The “Personal
forces” that cause one to act or behave in a certain way.

 The willingness of the individuals & groups, as influenced by various needs &
perceptions, to strive towards a goal.

 Motivation is one of the most important but most difficult functions of management.

 Motivation is an elusive /Intangible term. Understanding motivation requires understanding

peoples behavior.
 arising enthusiasm & persistence to pursue a certain course of action.
 stimulating people to action through incentives/rewards or inducements/persuation
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
 Willingness to work
 Reduce absenteeism
 Retain the existing labor
 Coerce the workers to work more
 building of good labor relation
 increase in the efficiency and out put
 increases productivity and profits
 helps in realizing organizational goal
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Introduction
Theory: A set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts that
attempt to provide a rational explanation of cause-&-effect r/ships
among a group of observed phenomenon.
Content Versus Process Motivation Theories
 Content theories
 focus on WHAT motivates behavior
 also called needs theories

 Process theories
 describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior
 focus on HOW human behavior is motivated
Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s
Need Hierarchy ERG Theory Theory Learned Needs

Self- Need for

Actualization Achievement
Growth Motivators
Need for
Esteem
Power

Need for
Belongingness Relatedness
Affiliation

Safety Hygienes
Existence
Physiological
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Individuals have needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive their
behavior
 Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as he/she satisfy
levels of needs
 Once a need is satisfied, then it is no longer a motivator
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Self-
Actualization

Esteem

Affiliation

Security

Physiological
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
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Levels of Needs
 Physiological/Survival needs
 Food, Clothing, Shelter, Air
 Security
 Feel safe, absence of pain, threat, or illness
 Affiliation
 friendship, company, love, belonging
 first clear step up from physical needs
 Esteem Needs
 self-respect, achievement, recognition, prestige
 cues a persons worth
 Self-Actualization
 personal growth, self-fulfillment, realization of full potential
 Where are YOU on the hierarchy???
 Alderfer’s ERG
Consolidates Maslow into 3 categories:
 Existence-physiological and security

 Relatedness-affiliation

 Growth-esteem and self-actualization

 Alderfer agreed with Maslow that unsatisfied needs motivate

individuals
ERG Model of Motivation

Frustration-Regression Satisfaction-Progression

Growth Needs

Relatedness Needs

Existence Needs
Frustration-Regression
 Differs from Maslow
 When unable to satisfy upper level needs, the individual will revert to
satisfying lower level needs
 Alderfer’s ERG…
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 it explains needs as a range rather than as a hierarchy.

 Implication of this theory:
 Managers must understand that an employee has various needs

that must be satisfied at the same time.

 ERG theory says, if the manager concentrates only on one need at
a time, he or she won’t be able to motivate the employee
effectively & efficiently.
 Prioritization & sequence of these three categories, classes can be
different for each individual.
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McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
 claimed that humans acquire, learn their motivators over time
 Needs are acquired through interaction with environment
 affirms that we all have three motivating drivers
 Not a hierarchy, but degrees of each type of need or motive
 McClelland’s theory differs from Maslow’s and Alderfer’s, which focus
on satisfying existing needs rather than creating or developing needs.
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory…
Achievement: a need to accomplish & demonstrate competence or
mastery
 need for significant success, mastering of skills, control or high
standards
Affiliation: a need for love, belongingness and relatedness
Power: a need for control over one’s own work or the work of others
 authority motivated

 McClelland argues that strong need for achievement people can

become the best leaders
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
 Some variables prevent job dissatisfaction & some variables produce
motivation
 Hygiene factors-basic needs that will prevent dissatisfaction
 light, temperature, pay, parking
 Motivators
 when present cause high levels of motivation
 interesting work, advancement, growth, etc.
 Herzberg’s Two Factor…
19

Hygiene factors
 Sources of job dissatisfaction associated with job context.
 Job dissatisfaction results when hygiene factors are poor.

 Improving the hygiene factors only decreases job dissatisfaction.

Motivator factors
 Sources of job satisfaction related to job content.
 Presence or absence of motivators is the key link to satisfaction.

 Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an employee is not dissatisfied.

 Motivation factors are needed to ensure employee's satisfaction & to motivate
an employee to higher performance
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 Sources of dissatisfaction and satisfaction in Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
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• Policies & Administration

• Salary
Hygiene •
•
Supervision
Work conditions

Factors •
•
•
Relationships
Status
Job security
• Personal life

• Achievement
• Recognition
Motivator •
•
Meaningful work
Responsibility

Factors •
•
Advancement
Growth

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 Hygiene Factors
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1. Company policy and administration 6. Job security

• availability of clearly defined policies, those relating to • freedom from insecurity, such as
people loss of position or loss of
• adequacy of organisation & management employment altogether
2. Supervision – technical 7. Personal life
• accessibility, competence & fairness of your superior • the effect of a person’s work on
3. Interpersonal relations family life, e.g. stress…
• relations with supervisors, subordinates & colleagues 8. Working conditions
4. Salary
• the physical conditions in which
• compensation package: wages, salary, pension… you work
5. Status • the amount of work, facilities
• a person’s position/rank in relation to others,
• environmental aspects e.g.
symbolised by title, size of office/other tangible ventilation, light, space, tools, noise
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 Motivator Factors
22

1. Achievement
• specific successes, such as the successful completion of a job, solutions to problems,
vindication & seeing the results of your work
2. Recognition
• any act of recognition, whether notice or praise
3. Possibility of growth
• changes in job where professional growth potential is increased
4. Advancement
• changes which enhance position or status at work
5. Responsibility
• being given real responsibility, matched with necessary authority to discharge it
6 The work itself
• the actual doing of the job or phases of it. 12/8/2019
 Practical Implications of Content Theories

 People have different needs at different times

 Offer employees a choice of rewards -- a flexible reward

system

 Do not rely too heavily on financial rewards

 they mainly address lower level needs
 Critics of Content Theories
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 Universality: they do not care about gender, age, culture, religious or

other factor differences.
 Research support and methodology problems: these theories were not
based on reliable and creditable research results.
 Work focus: individuals have needs only at their workplaces, but not at
any other places of their life.

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Process Theories

 Reinforcement Theory

 Expectancy Theory

 Equity Theory

 Goal Setting Theory

Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory
 says that behavior can be formed by its consequences
Types of Reinforcement:
 Positive Reinforcement-giving a positive response when an individual shows positive
& required behaviour; praise, appreciation, a good mark/grade, trophy, money,
promotions…can increase the possibility of the rewarded behaviors' repetition.
 Negative Reinforcement-rewarding an employee by removing negative outcomes
when behavior is performed…giving a meal to a hungry person.
 the meal is a negative reinforcement because it eliminates the unpleasant
state (hunger).
 Punishment-Application of a negative outcome-undesired reinforcement

 For example, if a student is always late to class & thus he gets negative
verbal feedback & also always has to tidy up the classroom at the end of the
day, in this case the undesirable behavior is reinforced with an undesirable
reinforcer
Reinforcement Theory
 Behaviors are functions of consequences that they produce
 If a behavior is followed by a pleasant experience it will be repeated
 In order to change behaviors the consequences must be changed
Adams’s Equity Theory
 states that people are motivated if they are treated equitably &
receive what they consider fair for their effort & costs.
 Individuals try to find a balance b/n their inputs & outputs relative to
a referent other
 If people perceive that the ratio of their inputs-outputs to the ratio of
referent other’s input-output is inequitable, then they will be motivated
to reduce the inequity
 Adams Equity…
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 Adams Equity…
30

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Results of Inequity
 Equity-I am being treated fairly
 Under-rewarded-will look to increase rewards, or decrease inputs to
match rewards
 Over-rewarded-will change referent to match cognitions or increase
inputs
 The problem with equity theory is that it does not take into

account differences in individual needs, values, &

personalities.
Locke’s Goal Setting Theory
 Assignment of specific, moderately difficult goals & providing
feedback will provide motivation to work
 Achieving the goals, the goal accomplishment further motivates
individuals to perform.
 Employee participation
 Receive rewards
 Provide competencies for achievement
 Process of motivation according to goal-setting theory
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Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
High
Task Performance

Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty

Low Moderate Challenging Impossible

Goal Difficulty
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 The motivation to engage in an activity is determined by appraising three factors:
Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will result in success. If you work
harder, it will result in better performance.
 "Am I capable of making a good grade on a math test if I learn more?"

Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a connection b/n activity & goal.
If you perform well, you will get reward.
 "Will I get the promised reward (a good mark) for performing well on a math test?"
Appraisal of this factor is based on the accuracy & consistency of marking. If one
day I get a good grade & another day I get a bad grade for the same
performance, then the motivation will decrease.
Valence – the degree to which a person values the reward, the results of success.
 "Do I value the reward that I get?" Appraisal of this factor is based on the
importance of its subject (math), the good mark, & the good performance in
general.
 Vroom’s Expectancy…
36

 Vroom supposes that expectancy, instrumentality & valence are multiplied together
to determine motivation. This means that if any of these is zero, then the motivation
to do something will be zero as well.

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Terms
 Expectancy-belief that effort will lead to performance
 Instrumentality-performance leads to rewards (does performance level
matter)
 Valence-value of rewards