Pediatric Advanced Life

Support (PALS)
Introduction
• PALS is an advanced components of recognition and treatment in
children for:
respiratory failure
shock
cardiopulmonary failure
cardiac arrhythmias
• Prevention from hypoxia, acidosis, and ischemia that lead to cardiac
arrest .

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 Assessment

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• PALS uses an assessment model that facilitates rapid evaluation and
intervention for life-threatening conditions. In infants and children,
most cardiac arrests result from progressive respiratory failure and/or
shock, and one of the aims of this rapid assessment model is to
prevent progression to cardiac arrest.
• The evaluation includes Initial impression (brief visual and auditory
observation of child's overall appearance, work of breathing,
circulation).
• The clinician should in rapid sequence assess.

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Primary assessment
• Airway (patent, patent with maneuvers/adjuncts, partially or completely
obstructed)
• Breathing (respiratory rate, effort, tidal volume, lung sounds, pulse
oximetry)
• Circulation (skin color and temperature, heart rate and rhythm, blood
pressure, peripheral and central pulses, capillary refill time)
• Disability
-AVPU pediatric response scale: Alert, Voice, Pain, Unresponsive
-Pupillary response to light
-Presence of hypoglycemia (rapid bedside glucose or response to empiric administration of
dextrose)
-Glasgow Coma Scale: Eye Opening, Verbal Response, Motor Response (for trauma patients)
• Exposure (fever or hypothermia, skin findings, evidence of trauma)

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Secondary assessment
• This portion of the evaluation includes a thorough head to toe
physical examination, as well as a focused medical history that
consists of the "SAMPLE" history:
• S: Signs and symptoms
• A: Allergies
• M: Medications
• P: Past medical history
• L: Last meal
• E: Events leading to current illness

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Tertiary assessment
• Injury and infection are common causes of life-threatening illness in
children.
• Thus, ancillary studies are frequently directed towards identifying the
extent of trauma or an infectious focus.

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Respiratory distress and failure
• Respiratory distress and failure — Recognition and treatment of respiratory
conditions amenable to simple measures (eg, supplemental oxygen or
inhaled bronchodilators) are major goals of PALS [3].
• The clinician may also have to treat rapidly progressive conditions and
intervene with advanced therapies to avoid cardiopulmonary arrest in
patients with respiratory failure. Early detection and treatment improve
overall outcome.
• The clinician should strive to categorize respiratory distress or failure into
one or more of the following [3] :
• Upper airway obstruction (eg, croup, epiglottitis)
• Lower airway obstruction (eg, bronchiolitis, status asthmaticus)
• Lung tissue (parenchymal) disease (eg, bronchopneumonia)
• Disordered control of breathing (eg, seizure, coma, muscle weakness)

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Initial management supports airway, breathing, and circulation:
• Airway – Key steps in basic airway management include:
• Provide 100 percent inspired oxygen
• Allow the child to assume a position of comfort or manually open the airway
• Clear the airway (suction)
• Insert an airway adjunct if consciousness is impaired (eg, nasopharyngeal airway or, if gag reflex absent, oropharyngeal airway)
• Breathing – The clinician should:
• Assist ventilation manually in patients not responding to basic airway maneuvers or with inadequate or ineffective respiratory effort
• Monitor oxygenation by pulse oximetry
• Monitor ventilation by end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) if available
• Administer medications as needed (eg, albuterol, epinephrine)
• In preparation for intubation, 100 % oxygen should be applied via non-rebreather mask or other high concentration device. If the
patient has evidence of respiratory failure, positive pressure ventilation should be initiated with a bag-valve-mask or flow-inflating
device to oxygenate and improve ventilation.
• Children who cannot maintain their airway, oxygenation, or ventilatory requirements should undergo placement of an artificial
airway, usually via endotracheal intubation and, less commonly, with a laryngeal mask airway or alternative device. Certain
populations of patients with upper airway obstruction and/or respiratory failure may respond to noninvasive ventilation (CPAP or
BiPAP) if airway reflexes are preserved.
• Circulation – Key interventions consist of monitoring heart rate and rhythm and establishing vascular access to provide volume
administration and/or medications for resuscitation. (See "Vascular (venous) access for pediatric resuscitation and other pediatric
emergencies".)

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Shock
• Shock — The goal is to recognize and categorize the type of shock in order
to prioritize treatment options. Early treatment of shock may prevent the
progression to cardiopulmonary failure.
• Shock may occur with normal, increased, or decreased systolic blood
pressure. Shock in children is usually related to low cardiac output, but
some patients may have high cardiac output, such as with sepsis or severe
anemia.
• Shock severity is usually categorized by its effect on systolic blood pressure
[3]:
• Compensated shock – Compensated shock occurs when compensatory
mechanisms (including tachycardia, increased systemic vascular resistance,
increased inotropy, and increased venous tone) maintain a systolic blood
pressure within a normal range.

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• Hypotensive shock (or decompensated shock) – Hypotensive shock occurs
when compensatory mechanisms fail to maintain systolic blood pressure.

• The definition of hypotension varies by age [3]:

• Hypotensive shock may rapidly progress to cardiopulmonary failure.

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• Shock categorization – There are four major categories of shock [3]
• Hypovolemic shock – Hypovolemic shock is characterized by inadequate circulating blood volume.
Common causes of fluid loss include diarrhea, hemorrhage (internal and external), vomiting,
inadequate fluid intake, osmotic diuresis (eg, diabetic ketoacidosis), third-space losses, and burns.
• Distributive shock – Distributive shock describes inappropriately distributed blood volume
typically associated with decreased systemic vascular resistance. Common causes include septic
shock, anaphylactic shock, and neurogenic shock (eg, head injury, spinal injury).
• Cardiogenic shock – Cardiogenic shock refers to impairment of heart contractility. Common causes
include congenital heart disease, myocarditis, cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, sepsis, poisoning or
drug toxicity, and myocardial injury (trauma).
• Obstructive shock – In this form of shock, hypotension arises from obstructed blood flow to the
heart or great vessels. Common causes include cardiac tamponade, tension pneumothorax, ductal
dependent congenital heart lesions, and massive pulmonary embolism.
• Any given patient may suffer from more than one type of shock. For example, a child in
septic shock may develop hypovolemia during the prodrome phase, distributive shock
during the early phase of sepsis, and cardiogenic shock later in the course.

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Cardiopulmonary failure
• Respiratory failure and hypotensive shock are the most common conditions preceding
cardiac arrest.
• Causes of respiratory failure include:
• Upper airway obstruction (choking, infection)
• Lower airway obstruction (asthma, foreign body aspiration)
• Parenchymal disease (pneumonia, acute pulmonary edema)
• Disordered control of breathing (coma, toxic ingestion, status epilepticus)
• Causes of hypotensive shock include:
• Hypovolemia (dehydration, hemorrhage)
• Cardiac failure (eg, due to myocarditis or valvular disease)
• Distributive shock (septic, neurogenic)
• Metabolic/electrolyte disturbances
• Acute myocardial infarction/ischemia
• Toxicologic ingestions
• Pulmonary embolism

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• The following physical findings often precede cardiopulmonary failure:
• Airway – Stridor, stertor, drooling, and/or severe retractions
• Breathing – Bradypnea, irregular, ineffective respiration, gasping, and/or cyanosis
• Circulation – Bradycardia, capillary refill >5 seconds, weak central pulses, no
peripheral pulses, hypotension, cool extremities, and/or mottled/cyanotic skin
• Disability – Diminished level of consciousness
• The patient in cardiopulmonary failure will progress rapidly to cardiac
arrest without aggressive intervention. Positive pressure ventilations with
100 percent inspired oxygen, chest compressions for heart rate <60 beats
per minute in patients with poor perfusion, and administration of
intravenous fluids and medications tailored to treat the underlying cause
are indicated.

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Heart rate and rhythm
• In children, the heart rate is classified as bradycardia, tachycardia, and
pulseless arrest. Interpretation of the cardiac rhythm requires
knowledge of the child's typical heart rate and baseline rhythm as
well as level of activity and clinical condition.

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Bradycardia
• Bradyarrhythmias are common pre-arrest rhythms in children and are
often due to hypoxia. Bradycardia with symptoms of shock (eg, poor
systemic perfusion, hypotension, altered consciousness) requires urgent
treatment to prevent cardiac arrest.
• Bradycardia is defined as a heart rate that is slow compared with normal
heart rates for the patient's age.
• Primary bradycardia is the result of congenital and acquired heart
conditions that directly slow the spontaneous depolarization rate of the
heart's pacemaker or slow conduction through the heart's conduction
system.
• Secondary bradycardia is the result of conditions that alter the normal
function of the heart, including hypoxia, acidosis, hypotension,
hypothermia, and drug effects.

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• Signs and symptoms – Pathologic bradycardia frequently causes a change
in the level of consciousness, lightheadedness, dizziness, syncope, or
fatigue. Shock associated with bradycardia can manifest with hypotension,
poor end-organ perfusion, altered consciousness, and/or sudden collapse.
• Electrocardiogram (ECG) findings associated with bradycardia include (see
"Bradycardia in children"):
• Slow heart rate relative to normal rates
• P waves that may or may not be visible
• QRS complex that is narrow (electrical conduction arising from the atrium or high
nodal area) or wide (electrical conduction from low nodal or ventricular region)
• P wave and QRS complex may be unrelated (ie, atrioventricular dissociation) or have
an abnormally long period between them (atrioventricular block)

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• Typical bradyarrhythmias include:
• Sinus bradycardia – Sinus bradycardia is commonly an incidental finding in healthy
children as a normal consequence of reduced metabolic demand (sleep, rest) or
increased stroke volume (well-conditioned athlete) (waveform 1). Pathologic causes
include hypoxia, hypothermia, poisoning, electrolyte disorders, infection, sleep
apnea, drug effects, hypoglycemia, hypothyroidism, and increased intracranial
pressure. (See "Bradycardia in children", section on 'Sinus bradycardia'.)
• Atrioventricular block
• First degree
• Second degree
-Mobitz type I
-Mobitz type II
• Third degree

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Tachycardia
• Relative tachycardia is a heart rate that is too fast for the child's age,
level of activity, and clinical condition. In children, sinus tachycardia
usually represents hypovolemia, fever, physiologic response to stress
or fear, or drug effect (such as with beta agonists).
• Tachyarrhythmias are fast abnormal rhythms originating in the atria
or the ventricles. Certain arrhythmias, such as supraventricular
tachycardia and ventricular tachycardia, can lead to shock and cardiac
arrest. Unstable rhythms lead to poor tissue perfusion with a fall in
cardiac output, poor coronary artery perfusion, and increased
myocardial oxygen demand, which can all lead to cardiogenic shock.

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• Signs and symptoms in children with tachycardia are often
nonspecific and vary by age. They may include palpitations,
lightheadedness, dizziness, fatigue and syncope. In infants, prolonged
tachycardia may cause poor feeding, tachypnea, and irritability with
signs of heart failure.

• Important ECG findings include:

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• Treatment priorities in managing tachycardias rely on whether hemodynamic instability is present
and differentiating between tachycardia with narrow QRS complex (sinus tachycardia,
supraventricular tachycardia, atrial flutter) and wide QRS complex tachycardias (ventricular
tachycardia, supraventricular tachycardia with aberrant intraventricular conduction):
• Sinus tachycardia is characterized by a rate of sinus node discharge that is faster than normal for
the patient's age. This rhythm usually represents the body's increased need for cardiac output or
oxygen delivery. The heart rate is not fixed and varies with other factors, including fever, stress,
and level of activity. Causes include tissue hypoxia, hypovolemia, fever, metabolic stress, injury,
pain, anxiety, toxins/poisons/drugs, and anemia. Less common causes include cardiac
tamponade, tension pneumothorax, and thromboembolism.
• Typical ECG findings in patients with sinus tachycardia include:
• Heart rate is usually <220/min in infants, <180/min in children, and exhibits beat to beat variability in rate.
• P waves are present with normal appearance.
• PR interval is constant and exhibits a normal duration for age.
• R-R interval is variable.
• QRS complex is narrow.
• Supraventricular tachycardia and Ventricular tachycardia

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Pulseless arrest
• Pulseless arrest refers to the cessation of blood circulation caused by absent or ineffective cardiac mechanical activity. Most
pediatric cardiac arrests are hypoxic/asphyxial arrests that result from a progression of respiratory distress, respiratory failure, or
shock rather than from primary cardiac arrhythmias ("sudden cardiac arrest").
• Children with pulseless arrest appear apneic or display a few agonal gasps. They have no palpable pulses, and are unresponsive.
• The arrest rhythms consist of:
• Shockable rhythms:
• Ventricular fibrillation
• Pulseless ventricular tachycardia
• Torsades de pointes
• Asystole
• Pulseless electrical activity
• Hypovolemia
• Hypoxia
• Hydrogen ion (acidosis)
• Hypo-/hyperkalemia
• Hypoglycemia
• Hypothermia
• Toxins
• Tamponade, cardiac
• Tension pneumothorax
• Thrombosis (coronary or pulmonary)
• Trauma

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 Algorithm

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Immediate and early postresuscitation
management
• The early postresuscitation period involves the time soon after return of
spontaneous circulation or recovery from circulatory or respiratory failure up to
12 hours post-event.
• During this time, the clinician must continue to treat the underlying cause of the
life-threatening event and monitor for common respiratory or circulatory
problems that may cause secondary morbidity or death.
• Maintain airway
• Avoid low and high arterial oxygen
• Monitor ventilation
• Avoid recurrent shock
• Maintain normal blood glucose
• EEG monitoring
• Targeted temperature management
• Transfer to a pediatric center
• Rapid response teams

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Family presence during resuscitation
• Observational studies indicate that caretakers should be given the option of being
present during the in-hospital resuscitation of their child (Kleinmann et al., 2010).
• Key findings include:
• Most parents want the opportunity to remain with their child during resuscitation and
believe it is their right.
• Caretakers present during the resuscitation of a family member frequently reported that
their presence during the resuscitation was beneficial to the patient.
• Two-thirds of caretakers present during the resuscitation of a child who died reported that
their presence helped with their adjustment to the death and the grieving process.
• Studies of hospital personnel suggest that the presence of a family member, in most
instances, was not stressful to staff and did not negatively impact staff performance.
• When family members are present during a pediatric resuscitation, a staff member with
clinical knowledge, empathy, and strong interpersonal skills should be present with them to
provide support and answer questions.
• In the rare instance that family presence is disruptive to team resuscitation efforts, the family
members should be respectfully asked to leave.

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 Summary

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• The principal aim for Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) is to
prevent cardiopulmonary failure and arrest through early recognition
and management of respiratory distress, respiratory failure, and
shock.
• A major goal of PALS is to recognize and treat respiratory conditions
amenable to simple measures (eg, supplemental oxygen, inhaled
albuterol). The clinician may also have to treat rapidly progressive
conditions and intervene with advanced therapies to avoid
cardiopulmonary arrest in patients with respiratory failure. Early
detection and treatment improve overall outcome.

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• Key steps in basic airway management include:
• Provide 100 percent inspired oxygen
• Allow child to assume position of comfort or manually open airway
• Clear airway (suction)
• Insert an airway adjunct if consciousness is impaired (e.g., nasopharyngeal
airway or, if gag reflex absent, oropharyngeal airway)

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• The clinician should assist ventilation manually in patients not responding to basic
airway maneuvers, monitor oxygenation by pulse oximetry, monitor ventilation
by end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) if available, and administer medications as
needed (eg, albuterol or racemic epinephrine). In preparation for intubation, the
patient should receive 100% oxygen via a high-concentration mask, or if
indicated, positive pressure ventilation with a bag-valve-mask to preoxygenate
and improve ventilation.
• Children who cannot maintain an effective airway, oxygenation, or ventilation
should receive noninvasive ventilation (NIV) or undergo endotracheal intubation.
A rapid overview provides the steps in performing rapid sequence intubation.
• Proper treatment of shock in children requires the clinician to recognize and
eventually categorize the type of shock in order to prioritize treatment options.
Early treatment of shock may prevent the progression to cardiopulmonary failure.

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• Key measures after resuscitation are as follows:
• Continue specific management of the underlying cause of the life-threatening event
• Titrate inspired oxygen to maintain pulse oximetry between 94 - 99 %
• In intubated patients, ensure proper endotracheal tube position and ongoing
monitoring of ventilation
• Avoid recurrent shock and hypotension (blood pressure <5th percentile for age) by
administering parenteral fluids and vasoactive medications as needed and according
to physiologic endpoints and cardiac function
• Avoid hypoglycemia while maintaining blood glucose <180 mg/dL (10 mmol/L)
• Monitor for and treat seizures aggressively if they occur
• Prevent elevated core body temperature using cooling measures, as needed

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References
• American Heart Association. Web-based Integrated Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary and Emergency
Cardiovascular Care - Part 12. Pediatric advanced life support.
https://eccguidelines.heart.org/index.php/circulation/cpr-ecc-guidelines-2/part-12-pediatric-advanced-life-
support/ (Accessed on November 10, 2015).
• de Caen AR, Berg MD, Chameides L, et al. Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support: 2015 American Heart
Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.
Circulation 2015; 132:S526.
• Pediatric Advanced Life Support Provider Manual, Chameides L, Samson RA, Schexnayder SM, Hazinski MF
(Eds), American Heart Association, Dallas 2012.
• Kleinman ME, Chameides L, Schexnayder SM, et al. Part 14: pediatric advanced life support: 2010 American
Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.
Circulation 2010; 122:S876.
• American Heart Association. Web-based Integrated Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and
Emergency Cardiovascular Care - Part 11: Pediatric Basic Life Support and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
Quality. ECCguidelines.heart.org (Accessed on October 15, 2015).
• Atkins DL, Berger S, Duff JP, et al. Part 11: Pediatric Basic Life Support and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
Quality: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and
Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 2015; 132:S519.

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References
• Soar J, Donnino MW, Maconochie I, et al. 2018 International Consensus on
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With
Treatment Recommendations Summary. Resuscitation 2018; 133:194.
• Andersen LW, Berg KM, Saindon BZ, et al. Time to Epinephrine and Survival After
Pediatric In-Hospital Cardiac Arrest. JAMA 2015; 314:802.
• Hansen M, Schmicker RH, Newgard CD, et al. Time to Epinephrine Administration and
Survival From Nonshockable Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Among Children and Adults.
Circulation 2018; 137:2032.
• Berg RA, Sutton RM, Reeder RW, et al. Association Between Diastolic Blood Pressure
During Pediatric In-Hospital Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Survival. Circulation
2018; 137:1784.
• Lasa JJ, Rogers RS, Localio R, et al. Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (E-CPR)
During Pediatric In-Hospital Cardiopulmonary Arrest Is Associated With Improved
Survival to Discharge: A Report from the American Heart Association's Get With The
Guidelines-Resuscitation (GWTG-R) Registry. Circulation 2016; 133:165.

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