Cooling For Sand Mould

Cooling for Sand mould
FIGURE: Temperature distribution at the mould wall and liquid-metal interface

during solidification of metals in casting.
Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose
SOLIDIFICATION OF ALLOYED METALS
• Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single temperature.
The exact range depends on the alloy system and the particular composition.
Solidification of an alloy can be explained with reference to Figure, which shows
the phase diagram for a particular alloy system and the cooling curve for a given
composition. As temperature drops, freezing begins at the temperature indicated
by the liquidus and is completed when the solidus is reached. The start of
freezing is similar to that of the pure metal. A thin skin is formed at the mould
wall due to the large temperature gradient at this surface. Freezing then
progresses as before through the formation of dendrites that grow away from the
walls. However, owing to the temperature spread between the liquidus and
solidus, the nature of the dendritic growth is such that an advancing zone is
formed in which both liquid and solid metal coexist. The solid portions are the
dendrite structures that have formed sufficiently to trap small islands of liquid
metal in the matrix. This solid–liquid region has a soft consistency that has
motivated its name as the mushy zone. Depending on the conditions of freezing,
the mushy zone can be relatively narrow, or it can exist through outmost of the
casting. The latter condition is promoted by factors such as slow heat transfer out
of the hot metal and a wide difference between liquidus and solidus temperatures.
Gradually, the liquid islands in the dendrite matrix solidify as the temperature of
the casting drops to the solidus for the given alloy composition.
• Another factor complicating solidification of alloys is that the composition of the
dendrites as they start to form favors the metal with the higher melting point. As
freezing continues and the dendrites grow, there develops an imbalance in
composition between the metal that has solidified and the remaining molten
metal. This composition imbalance is finally manifested in the completed casting
in the form of segregation of the elements. The segregation is of two types,
microscopic and macroscopic. At the microscopic level, the chemical
composition varies throughout each individual grain. This is due to the fact that
the beginning spine of each dendrite has a higher proportion of one of the
elements in the alloy. As the dendrite grows in its local vicinity, it must expand
using the remaining liquid metal that has been partially depleted of the first
component. Finally, the last metal to freeze in each grain is that which has been
trapped by the branches of the dendrite, and its composition is even further out of
balance. Thus, we have a variation in chemical composition within single grains
of the casting. At the macroscopic level, the chemical composition varies
throughout the entire casting. Since the regions of the casting that freeze first (at
the outside near the mould walls) are richer in one component than the other, the
remaining molten alloy is deprived of that component by the time freezing occurs
at the interior. Thus, there is a general segregation

FIGURE (a) Phase diagram for a
copper– nickel alloy system and
(b) associated cooling curve for a
50%Ni–50% Cu composition
during casting.
FIGURE : Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting,

showing segregation of alloying components in the center of
casting.

Formation of Dendrites
FIGURE: Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in a

solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the semisolid (mushy) zone.
Preferred Texture At A mould Wall
FIGURE 5.9 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mould wall. Note that only
favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mould.

Three Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
FIGURE: Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square

mould: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) the structure obtained by
heterogenous nucleation of grains, using nucleating agents. Source: G.W. Form, J.F.
Wallace, J. L. Walker, and A. Gibula.
Solidification Patterns
• FIGURE 5.11 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm
(7-in.) square casting. Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites
reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about
two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of
carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) moulds. Note the difference in
solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: H.F.
Bishop and W. S. Pellini.

Microstructure Formation
• Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures

• (a) Columnar dendritic (b) equiaxed dendritic (c) equiaxed nondendritic

Solidified Skin on Steel Casting
FIGURE: Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is

poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative
objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this
principle. Source: H. F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C. Flemings.

SOLIDIFICATION TIME
• Whether the casting is pure metal or alloy, solidification takes time. The total
solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify after pouring. This time is
dependent on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical relationship known as
Chvorinov’s rule, which states:
• Where TTS= total solidification time, min; V= volume of the casting, cm3 (in3); A=surface
area of the casting, cm2 (in2); n is an exponent usually taken to have a value = 2; and Cm
is the mould constant. Given that n = 2, the units of Cm are min/cm2 (min/in2), and its
value depends on the particular conditions of the casting operation, including mould
material, thermal properties of the cast metal, and pouring temperature relative to the
melting point of the metal. The value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based on
experimental data from previous operations carried out using the same mould material,
metal, and pouring temperature, even though the shape of the part may be quite different.
Chvorinov’s rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will
cool and solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio. This principle is put to good use
in designing the riser in a mould. To perform its function of feeding molten metal to the
main cavity, the metal in the riser must remain in the liquid phase longer than the casting.
In other words, the TTS for the riser must exceed the TTS for the main casting. Since the
mould conditions for both riser and casting are the same, their mould constants will be
equal. By designing the riser to have a larger volume-to-area ratio, we can be fairly sure
that the main casting solidifies first and that the effects of shrinkage are minimized.

Solidification Time : Sand Casting

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
• In order to minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for the regions of
the casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for solidification
to progress from these remote regions toward the riser(s). In this way, molten metal will
continually be available from the risers to prevent shrinkage voids during freezing. The
term directional solidification is used to describe this aspect of the freezing process and
the methods by which it is controlled. The desired directional solidification is achieved by
observing Chvorinov’s rule in the design of the casting itself, its orientation within the
mould, and the design of the riser system that feeds it. For example, by locating sections
of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from the riser, freezing will occur first in these
regions and the supply of liquid metal for the rest of the casting will remain open until
these bulkier sections solidify.
• Another way to encourage directional solidification is to use chills—internal or external
heat sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting. Internal chills are
small metal parts placed inside the cavity before pouring so that the molten metal will
solidify first around these parts. The internal chill should have a chemical composition
similar to the metal being poured, most readily achieved by making the chill out of the
same metal as the casting itself. External chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mould
cavity that can remove heat from the molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand
in order to promote solidification. They are often used effectively in sections of the casting
that are difficult to feed with liquid metal, thus encouraging rapid freezing in these
sections while the connection to liquid metal is still open.

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
• As important as it is to initiate freezing in the appropriate regions of the cavity, it is also
important to avoid premature solidification in sections of the mould nearest the riser. Of
particular concern is the passageway between the riser and the main cavity. This
connection must be designed in such a way that it does not freeze before the casting,
which would isolate the casting from the molten metal in the riser. Although it is generally
desirable to minimize the volume in the connection (to reduce wasted metal), the cross-
sectional area must be sufficient to delay the onset of freezing. This goal is usually aided
by making the passageway short in length, so that it absorbs heat from the molten metal in
the riser and the casting.
FIGURE: (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in a thin section
of the casting; and (b) the likely result if the external chill were not used.
Melting Furnaces
• Different types melting furnaces that are used :
• Cupola Furnace: They are used for producing molten cast iron.
• Crucible Furnace: They are used to melt non-ferrous metals like
bronze, brass, aluminium and zinc alloys. They are of two types:
– Pit Crucible Furnace.
– Tilting Furnace.
• Electric Furnace: Any type of materials is melt using these
furnaces. These are used for high quality castings. They are of two
types:
– Direct arc furnace
– Indirect arc furnace.
• Induction Furnace: Any type of materials is melt using this
furnace.

Melting Furnaces (Cupola )

• Description of a cupola:
• The cupola is a shaft type furnace for
producing molten cast iron.
• It is a vertical cylindrical shell made of 6 to
12 mm thick steel sheets or plates riveted and
lined inside with refractory bricks.
• Diameters vary from 1 to 2 meters.
• The lining is generally thicker in the lower
region, where the temperatures encountered
are very high than in the upper region.
• The shell is mounted either on a brick work
foundation or on a steel column.
• The bottom of the shell is provided with
drop-bottom doors, through which debris
consists of slag, coke etc. can be removed at
the end of the melt.

• In cupolas the working bottom is built up
with moulding sand, which covers the drop
doors.
• This bottom sand slopes towards the metal
tapping hole situated at the lowest point at
the front of the cupola.
• The tap hole is used to tap molten metal.
• Opposite to this tap hole, and slightly above,
is another hole, called the slag hole, which
enables the slag to be taken out.
• The air for combustion is blown with the
help of a motorized blower, through a pipe
called wind pipe to a circular jacket wound
around the shell called wind box. And
finally the air goes in to the shell through a
number of openings called tuyeres, which
are provided at above the bed of the cupola.

• The tuyeres are generally 4,6, or 8 in
numbers depending on the size of the
cupola. They may be fitted in one or
more number of rows.
• A charging door is provided through
which metal, coke and flux are fed into
the furnace, and this is situated 3 to 6
m above the tuyerers, according to the
size of the cupola.
• At the top of the furnace a conical cap
called the spark arrester, prevents the
sparks from emerging outside.
• The spark arrester cools down the
sparks and allows only smoke to
escape from the opening.
Melting Furnaces
• Zones in a Cupola:
• Crucible Zone: It is between the top of the
sand and the bottom of the tuyeres. The
molten metal comes here.
• Tuyeres Zone: It is between the bottom of
tuyeres to the top of tuyeres.
• Combustion or oxidizing Zone: This zone is
located above the tuyeres where the
combustion of the fuel occurs by oxygen of
the air blast and produces lot of heat in the
cupola. Heat is also evolved due to oxidation
of silicon and manganese. The chemical
reactions which occurs in this zone are:
– C + O2 CO2 + Heat
– Si + O2 SiO2 + Heat
– 2Mn + O2 2MnO2 + Heat

Melting Furnaces
• Reduction Zone: This zone extends from
the top of the combustion zone to the top
of the coke bed. CO2 produced in
combustion zone comes in contact with
hot coke and is reduced to CO. The
reaction taking place in this zone is:
– CO2 + C (coke) 2CO - Heat
• Melting Zone: It is the first layer of iron
above the coke bed. The temperature in
this zone is as high as 17000c. Iron is
meted in this zone. A considerable carbon
is picked up by the molten metal in this
zone according to the following reactions;
– 3Fe + 2CO Fe3C + CO2

Melting Furnaces
• Preheating Zone or Charging Zone:
It is located above the melting zone to
the charging door. Iron and coke are
preheated in this zone.
• Stack zone: This zone carries gases
from preheating zone to atmosphere
and arrests sparks.

Melting Furnaces (Cupola Operation)
• Preparation of Cupola:
• After each heat, the slag and refuse are cleaned as soon as the patching of the
lining is completed; the bottom doors are raised and held in position by metal
props. The sand bottom is made such that it slopes towards the tap hole.
• Firing the Cupola:
• Small pieces of wood are ignited on the sand bottom when the wood burns
well. Coke is then added. Air necessary for combustion is fed from the
tuyeres. Coke is added until the desired height is reached
• Charging of the Cupola:
• After the coke bed is properly ignited, coke and pig iron are charged in
alternative layers until the cupola is full.
• In addition of iron and coke, a certain amount of limestone is added to first
metal charge. Besides that fluorspar (CaF2) and soda ash (Na2CO3) are also
used as fluxing materials. A flux removes the impurities in the iron and
protects the iron from oxidation. Limestone reduces the meting point of the
slag and increases fluidity. Sometimes ferro-manganese is also used as
deoxidizer.
Melting Furnaces
• Soaking of Iron:
• After the cupola is fully charged up to the charging door, the charge
should soak in the heat for about 45 minutes. The charge gets slowly
heated since the air blast is kept at a lower than normal blowing rate
during this time. This causes the iron to get soaked
• Opening the air blast:
• At the end of soaking full blast is turned on. After the blast has been on
for a few minutes, molten metal starts accumulating in the hearth.
• Tapping and Slagging:
• The first tapping can be made 40 to 50 minutes after the full blast is
turned on. Slag is first removed through the slag hole and then the molten
metal is collected in ladles and is carried to the moulds for pouring.
• Closing the Cupola:
• When the operation is over, the blast is shut off and the prop under the
bottom door is knocked down so that the bottom plates swing open. This
enables the cupola remains to drop on the floor or in to a bucket. They are
then quenched and removed from underneath the cupola.

Melting Furnaces (Electric Arc furnaces )
• Direct arc furnace:
• Three-phase Direct arc furnace is the most popular one for melting steel
in the foundry. In operation, scrape steel is placed on the hearth of the
furnace. An arc is drawn between the electrodes and the surface of the
metal charge by lowering the electrodes down till current jumps. Slag is
maintained on the molten metal to reduce oxidation. Before pouring
liquid metal into the ladle, the furnace is tilted back and the slag is
removed from the charging doors. Now the furnace is tilted forward to
pour the molten metal into ladle.
• Advantages:
– The main advantage of this furnace over
cupola furnace is that purer production is
obtained and composition can be exactly
controlled during refining process.
– This furnace can operate on 100% scrape
steel which is cheaper than pig iron.
• Disadvantage:
– This furnace involves high initial cost

Melting Furnaces (Electric Arc furnaces )
• Indirect arc furnace:
• This is a single-phase electric furnace. This differs from the direct arc furnace
that the electrodes do not come in contact with the molten metal, but form an arc
above the molten metal. The furnace is mounted on rollers, which is driven by
rocking unit to rock the furnace back and forth during melting. When the furnace
rocks, liquid metal washes over the heated refractory linings and absorb heat
from them. Thus the life of the refractory linings is also increased as the metal
takes some of its heat and prevents it from high temperatures. The charge is
heated by radiation from the arc and conduction from the lining.
• Advantages:
• The chamber being closed, and the atmosphere above the
metal being arc, there is less loss of metal due to
oxidation.
• This furnace gives higher production per ton of molten
metal.
• Due to rocking action and absence of combustion gases,
the molten metal is free from blow holes, inclusions etc.
As a result, this molten metal gives sound castings.
• Disadvantage:
• Due to indirect heating the furnace is suitable for metal
having low melting temperatures. Thus this furnace is
suitable for non ferrous metals only.
Melting Furnaces ( Electric Resistance Furnaces )

Melting Furnaces ( Induction furnaces )
• The induction furnaces are used for all types of materials, the chief
advantage being the heat source is isolated from the charge and the slag
and the flux would be getting the necessary heat directly from the charge
instead of the heat source.
• The stirring effect of the electric current would cause fluxes to be
entrained in the melt if they are mixed along with the charge. So flux is
generally added after switching off the current to the furnace.
• Then sufficient time must be allowed for the oxides to be removed by the
flux as slag before transferring the metal for pouring.
• High frequencies help in stirring the molten and thus help in using the
metal chips. Low cost raw materials could, therefore, be used and at the
same time better control of temperature and composition can be achieved.
• Because of their very rapid melting rate and the relative ease of
controlling pollution, induction furnace has become a very popular means
of melting metal.
• They are of two types.

Melting Furnaces
• High Frequency or coreless induction furnace:
• This furnace consists of a crucible surrounded by water cooled coil of
copper tubing. A very high frequency electrical current passes through
the coil, creating an alternating magnetic field, inducing secondary
current in the metal being melted, which bring about a rapid rate of
heating.
• This furnace provides a good control of temperature and composition.
Because there is no contamination from the heat source, they produce
pure metals.

Melting Furnaces
• Low frequency or channel type:
• In this a small channel is surrounded by primary coil (which has
laminated steel core). A secondary core is formed by channel of
molten metal which contains the metal to be melted. The metal
while circulating through the channel gets heated.
• As temperature in the furnace can be easily controlled, this type of
furnace are used as holding furnace, where molten metal is
maintained at constant temperature for an extended period of time.

Expendable mould with multiple use pattern (Carbon Dioxide moulding)
• The process is basically a hardening process for moulds and cores.
• The principle of working of the CO2 process is based on the fact that if CO2
gas is passed through a sand mix containing sodium silicate, the sand
immediately becomes extremely strongly bonded as the sodium silicate
becomes a stiff gel.
• This gel is responsible for giving strength to the mould.
• The chemical reaction can be represented in simplified form as:
• Na2O. (m)SiO2 . (x) H2O + CO2 Na2CO3 + (m)Si2 O.
(x) .H2O
• The sodium silicate in this process is Na2O. (m)SiO2 . (x) H2O , where the
ratio of total alkalinity (Na2O) to soluble silica (SiO2) is called mass ratio
(m).
• The common sodium silicate used for the CO2 process in foundries should
have a mass ratio varying from 2.1 to 2.3.
• The SiO2 obtained from the reaction contain certain number of water
molecules, and is called silica gel.
• This silica gel is responsible for giving the necessary strength to the mould.
• The sand to be used for this process is free of clay and contains very less
moisture.
• This sand is thoroughly mixed with 3 to 5 % sodium silicate liquid base
binder in a muller for 3 to 4 mins.
• Suitable additives such as coal powder, wood flour, sea coal, dextrine may be
added to improve certain properties.
• The suitable sand mixture can then be packed around the pattern in the flask
or in the core box.
• When the process of mixing and packing is complete, CO2 is forced into the
mould or core at a pressure of about 1.45 kgf/sq. cm for a pre determined
period of time.
• The reaction proceeds rapidly in the early stages of gasification and the
compressive strength of sand mixture reaches a maximum value when a
certain critical amount of gas is passed.
• The gassing can be carried out by a probe having number of holes at the base.
• The flow rate of CO2 gas depends on the depth of penetration desired.

• Advantages of CO2 moulding:
• It is a fast process of hardening the moulds.
• Removing of the pattern is easier since the mould may be hardened before
the withdrawal of the pattern.
• Accurate castings with sharp corners can be mould.
• Surface finish of the casting is good.
• Semi-skilled labour can be used.
• Reduces machining allowances.
• Limitations of CO2 moulding:
• The collapsibility of the moulding sand is reduced.
• Difficulty in reclaiming the used sand.
• Bench life of sand mixtures is much shorter than most other mould and
core mixtures.
• Applications: This process is used to cast parts of valves, pumps,
compressors, machine tools, railway components and engine parts.

Expendable mould with multiple use pattern (Shell
moulding)
• First a pattern is made of iron. The iron pattern is heated to +/-200°C.
• The pattern is attached to a dump box and sprayed with a releasing agent;
similar to putting oil in a baking pan.
• The dump box contains fine sand mixed with thermo setting resin binder.
• The dump box is rotated with the pattern now at the bottom and the sand
that was once at the bottom is now on top.
• The sand mixture falls against the pattern and gets heated in this manner,
the resin cures, causing the sand grains to adhere to each other forming
sturdy shell that exactly conforms to the dimensions and shape of the
pattern and constitutes half of a mould.
• After a 5mm thick shell is formed, due to melting and solidifying of the
thermosetting binder, the dump box is rotated and the unused sand falls to
the bottom.
• The pattern and shell are then put in an oven at 350°C –400oC to cure the
resin.
• The pattern is removed by the ejector pins.
• Typically, two pattern shells are used together. A backing material like
sand or steel shot is used and the metal is poured into the mould.
moulding)

moulding)
(b) Pattern and dump box rotated
• Developed in the 1940’s
• Produces close dimensional
tolerances
• Good surface finish
• Low cost process
(c) Pattern dump box in position for the
investment
Common methods of making shell moulds.

(a) Pattern rotated and clamped
(d) Pattern and shell removed from dump box

moulding)
Figures showing two different shell moulds

moulding)
• Advantages:
• Better surface finishes are obtained.
• Machining of castings are reduced.
• The chances of blow holes or pockets are reduced since the holes are
highly permeable.
• Shells can be stored for long time.
• High dimensional accuracy can be obtained.
• Draft angles which are lower than the sand castings are required in
shell moulds. The reduction in draft angles may be from 50 to 75%
which considerably saves the material costs and the subsequent
machining costs.
• Also, very thin sections (upto 0.25 mm) of the type of air cooled
cylinder heads can be readily made by the shell moulding because of
the higher strength of the sand used for moulding.
• Permeability of the shell is high and therefore no gas inclusions occur.
• Very small amount of sand needs to be used.
• Mechanisation is readily possible because of the simple processing
involved in shell moulding.
moulding)
• Limitations:
• The metal pattern is costlier than the wooden one. The patterns are very
expensive and therefore are economical only if used in large scale
production. In a typical application, shell moulding becomes
economical over sand moulding above 15000 pieces because of the
higher pattern cost.
• The size of the casting obtained by shell moulding is limited. Generally
castings weighing upto 200 kg can be made, though in smaller quantity.
castings upto a weight of 450 kg were made.
• Highly complicated shapes cannot be obtained.
• More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling the shell
mouldings such as those required for heated metal patterns. High
equipment cost.
• High resin cost.
• Uneconomical for small production lots.
• Relative inflexibilities in gating and risering systems.
• Applications:
• The most common application is for automobile parts castings in grey cast iron and
aluminum.
Expendable mould with single use pattern: Investment Casting-- lost
wax process

wax process
FIGURE :Schematic illustration

of investment casting (lost-wax
process). Castings by this
method can be made with very
fine detail and from a variety of
metals. Source: Steel Founders’
Society of America.

Schematic illustration of investment casting
1. WAX INJECTION : Wax replicas of the
desired castings are produced by injection
moulding. These replicas are called
patterns.
2. ASSEMBLY : The patterns are attached

to a central wax stick, called a sprue, to
form a casting cluster or assembly.
3. SHELL BUILDING : The shell is built by

immersing the assembly in a liquid ceramic slurry and
then into a bed of extremely fine sand. Up to eight
layers may be applied in this
manner.
4. DEWAX : Once the ceramic is dry, the wax is

melted out, creating a negative impression of the
assembly within the shell.

Schematic illustration of investment casting
• 5. CONVENTIONAL CASTING
In the conventional process, the shell is filled
with molten metal by gravity pouring. As the
metal cools, the parts and gates, sprue and
pouring cup become one solid casting.
• 6. KNOCKOUT
When the metal has cooled and solidified, the
ceramic shell is broken off by vibration or water
blasting.
• 7. CUT OFF
The parts are cut away from the central sprue using a
high speed friction saw.
• 8. FINISHED CASTINGS
After minor finishing operations, the metal castings--
identical to the original wax patterns--are ready for
shipment to the customer.

wax process
• Investment casting is also known as the lost wax process.
• This process is one of the oldest manufacturing processes.
• The Egyptians used it in the time of the Pharaohs to make gold jewelry
(hence the name Investment) some 5,000 years ago.
• Intricate shapes can be made with high accuracy.
• In addition, metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates
for this process.
• It can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal
manufacturing techniques, such as turbine blades that have complex shapes,
or airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures.
• The mould is made by making a pattern using wax or some other material
that can be melted away.
• This wax pattern is dipped in refractory slurry, which coats the wax pattern
and forms a skin.
• This is dried and the process of dipping in the slurry and drying is repeated
until a robust thickness is achieved.
wax process
• After this, the entire pattern is placed in an oven and the wax is melted away.
• This leads to a mould that can be filled with the molten metal.
• Because the mould is formed around a one-piece pattern, (which does not
have to be pulled out from the mould as in a traditional sand casting process),
very intricate parts and undercuts can be made.
• The materials used for the slurry are a mixture of plaster of Paris, a binder
and powdered silica, a refractory, for low temperature melts.
• For higher temperature melts, sillimanite an alumina-silicate is used as a
refractory, and silica is used as a binder.
• Depending on the fineness of the finish desired additional coatings of
sillimanite and ethyl silicate may be applied.
• The mould thus produced can be used directly for light castings, or be
reinforced by placing it in a larger container and reinforcing it more slurry.
• Just before the pour, the mould is pre-heated to about 1000 ºC (1832 ºF) to
remove any residues of wax, harden the binder.

wax process
• Th pour in the pr -heated mould also ensure that th mould will
fill completely.
• Pouring can be done using gravity, pressure or vacuum conditions.
• Attention must be paid to mould permeability when using pressure,
to allow the air to escape as the pour is done.
• The types of materials that can be cast are Aluminum alloys,
Bronzes, tool steels, stainless steels, Stellite, and precious metals.
• Parts made with investment castings often do not require any
further machining, because of the close tolerances that can be
achieved.

Investment Casting- lost wax process: A video

wax process
• Advantages:
• High dimensional accuracy.
• A very smooth surface can be achieved.
• Extremely thin sections, to the extent 0.75mm, can be cast
successfully. Very fine details and thin sections can be produced
by this process, because the mould is heated before pouring.
• Complex shapes which are difficult to produce by any other
method are possible since the pattern is withdrawn by melting it.
• Suitable for mass production of small sized castings.
• Castings produced by this process are ready for use with little or
no machining required. This is particularly useful for those hard-
to-machine materials such as nimonic alloys.

wax process
• Limitation :
• The process is normally limited by the size and mass of the
casting. The upper limit on the mass of a casting may be of the
order of 5 kg.
• This is a more expensive process because of larger manual labour
involved in the preparation of the pattern and the mould.
• Production rate is slow.
• Applications:
• This process is used for casting of turbine blades and parts of
automobile.

Expendable-Pattern Casting
• Polystyrene beads are placed in a preheated die
• The polystyrene bead expand to fix the die
• The die is cooled and the polystyrene pattern is removed
• The polystyrene pattern is placed in a mould with support sand
• The polystyrene pattern evaporates with contact of molten metal to form a cavity
Schematic illustration of the expendable pattern casting process also known as lost
foam or evaporative casting.
Evaporative Pattern /Lost Foam - Metal Casting
• Patterns are produced in EPS (Encapsulated Polystyrene), the pattern
receives a sprue or feeder system (also of EPS) and can be either
placed directly into loose dry sand, or invested into a ceramic slurry.
The slurry is air dried or in a low temp oven (but the foam pattern is
retained).
• In either case the pattern is surrounded by loose dry sand that is being
constantly agitated by a vibratory mechanism as the sand is added to
the container that holds the pattern. The vibratory motion creates a
degree of fluid movement within the surface of the sand that is able to
completely fill all crevices, under-cuts, openings and orifices thus
removing the requirement of otherwise complex cores.
• Once the pattern (and refractory coating) is completely held in a
container of sand, the metal is poured into the sprue. The heat of the
molten metal evaporates the foam in it's path and accurately fills in
behind the foam as it advances down through the pattern. The
vapourized EPS is vented into the loose sand through the refractory
coating (if used).
Evaporative Pattern Casting
• Advantages - are (but not limited to...) coreless moulding, very high
casting complexity, comparatively low capital and operating
investment, simplified shakeout, ease of sand recovery and as
mentioned 0.120" wall thicknesses. The Video and notes reflect this
as a relatively environmentally benign process... (I have concerns to
the contrary)
• Disadvantages - Pattern coating requires additional labour and
material costs, patterns require care as they can be fragile due to
construction, Strict safety procedures to be followed when handling
loose sand post pouring. The last item applies to all loose sand
handling with regard to the hazards of Silicosis, but especially when
handling sand that has burnt EPS covering the grains. The strong
chemical stench of the sand screams of future respiratory ailments
if caution is not exercised.

Plaster--mould Casting
• mould is made of plaster

• Mixed with water and additives and
poured over a pattern
• After plaster sets, pattern is removed
and the mould is dried at 120 C
• Have low permeability – gases can
not escape
• Patterns are made of:
– Al alloys,
– Thermosetting plastics
– Brass or Zinc alloys
• Have fine details and good surface
finish
• Form of precision casting

Plaster--m ould Casting
• Plaster-mould casting is similar to sand casting except that the mould is
made of plaster of Paris (gypsum, CaSO –2H O) instead of sand. 4 2
Additives such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster to control
contraction and setting time, reduce cracking, and increase strength. To
make the mould, the plaster mixture combined with water is poured over a
plastic or metal pattern in a flask and allowed to set. Wood patterns are
generally unsatisfactory due to the extended contact with water in the
plaster. The fluid consistency permits the plaster mixture to readily flow
around the pattern, capturing its details and surface finish. Thus, the cast
product in plaster moulding is noted for these attributes. Curing of the
plaster mould is one of the disadvantages of this process, at least in high
production. The mould must set for about 20 minutes before the pattern is
stripped. The mould is then baked for several hours to remove moisture.
Even with the baking, not all of the moisture content is removed from the
plaster. The dilemma faced by foundrymen is that mould strength is lost
when the plaster becomes too dehydrated, and yet moisture content can
cause casting defects in the product. A balance must be achieved
between these undesirable alternatives. Another disadvantage with the
plaster mould is that it is not permeable, thus limiting escape of gases
fromthemould cavity.
Plaster--mould Casting
• This problem can be solved a number of ways: (1) evacuating air from the
mould cavity before pouring; (2) aerating the plaster slurry prior to mould
making so that the resulting hard plaster contains finely dispersed voids;
and (3) using a special mould composition and treatment known as the
Antioch process. This process involves using about 50% sand mixed with
the plaster, heating the mould in an autoclave (an oven that uses
superheated steam under pressure), and then drying. The resulting mould
has considerably greater permeability than a conventional plaster mould.
Plaster moulds cannot withstand the same high temperatures as sand
moulds. They are therefore limited to the casting of lower-melting-point
alloys, such as aluminum, magnesium, and some copper-base alloys.
Applications include metal moulds for plastic and rubber moulding, pump
and turbine impellers, and other parts of relatively intricate geometry.
Casting sizes range from about 20 g (less than 1 oz) to more than 100 kg
(more than 220 lb). Parts weighing less than about 10 kg (22 lb) are most
common. Advantages of plastermoulding for these applications are good
surface finish and dimensional accuracy and the capability to make thin
cross-sections in the casting.

Ceramic--mould Casting
• Similar to plaster-mould
process • moulds are baked in an oven
• moulds can be used to cast high-
temperature alloys
• Uses refractory mould materials • Castings have good surface finishes
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Suitable for high temperature • Some what expensive to make
applications
• Mixture made of:

– Fine grained zircon
– Aluminum oxide
– Silica
• Mixture is mixed with bonding

agents and poured over pattern
• Mixture is mixed with bonding

agents and poured over pattern

Ceramic--mould Casting
• Ceramic-mould casting is similar to plaster-mould casting, except that the mould
is made of refractory ceramic materials that can withstand higher temperatures
than plaster. Thus, ceramic moulding can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and
other high temperature alloys. Its applications (relatively intricate parts) are
similar to those of plaster-mould casting except for the metals cast. Its advantages
(good accuracy and finish) are also similar.

Permanent--mould casting
• Advantages of permanent mould casting:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mould results in a finer grain structure, so castings are
stronger
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mould
– High cost of mould

Steps in permanent-mould casting
FIGURE Steps in permanent-mould casting: (1) mould is preheated and coated; (2) cores (if used) are
inserted, and mould is closed; (3) molten metal is poured into the mould; and (4) mould is opened.
Finished part is shown in (5).
http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/permanent-mold-casting

• Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that shares similarities to both
sand casting and die casting. As in sand casting, molten metal is poured into a
mold which is clamped shut until the material cools and solidifies into the desired
part shape. However, sand casting uses an expendable mold which is destroyed
after each cycle. Permanent mold casting, like die casting, uses a metal mold
(die) that is typically made from steel or cast iron and can be reused for several
thousand cycles. Because the molten metal is poured into the die and not forcibly
injected, permanent mold casting is often referred to as gravity die casting.
Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume production of small,

simple metal parts with uniform wall thickness. Non-ferrous metals are typically
used in this process, such as aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, and copper
alloys. However, irons and steels can also be cast using graphite molds. Common
permanent mold parts include gears and gear housings, pipe fittings, and other
automotive and aircraft components such as pistons, impellers, and wheels.

• The permanent mold casting process consists of the following steps:
• Mold preparation - First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300-500°F (150-
260°C) to allow better metal flow and reduce defects. Then, a ceramic coating is
applied to the mold cavity surfaces to facilitate part removal and increase the
mold lifetime.
• Mold assembly - The mold consists of at least two parts - the two mold halves
and any cores used to form complex features. Such cores are typically made from
iron or steel, but expendable sand cores are sometimes used. In this step, the
cores are inserted and the mold halves are clamped together.
• Pouring - The molten metal is poured at a slow rate from a ladle into the mold
through a sprue at the top of the mold. The metal flows through a runner system
and enters the mold cavity.
• Cooling - The molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the mold.
• Mold opening - After the metal has solidified, the two mold halves are opened
and the casting is removed.
• Trimming - During cooling, the metal in the runner system and sprue solidify
attached to the casting. This excess material is now cut away.

VARIATIONS OF PERMANENT--mould CASTING
• Slush Casting: Slush casting is a permanent-mould process in which a hollow
casting is formed by inverting the mould after partial freezing at the surface to
drain out the liquid metal in the center. Solidification begins at the mould walls
because they are relatively cool, and it progresses over time toward the middle of
the casting. Thickness of the shell is controlled by the length of time allowed
before draining. Slush casting is used to make statues, lamp pedestals, and toys
out of low-melting-point metals such as zinc and tin. In these items, the exterior
appearance is important, but the strength and interior geometry of the casting are
minor considerations.
• Low-Pressure Casting: In the basic permanent-mould casting process and in
slush casting, the flow of metal into the mould cavity is caused by gravity. In
low-pressure casting, the liquid metal is forced into the cavity under low
pressure—approximately 0.1 MPa (14.5 lb/in2)—from beneath so that the flow is
upward, as illustrated in Figure. The advantage of this approach over traditional
pouring is that clean molten metal from the center of the ladle is introduced into
the mould, rather than metal that has been exposed to air. Gas porosity and
oxidation defects are thereby minimized, and mechanical properties are
improved.

Slush Casting

Low--Pressure Casting
FIGURE: Low-pressure casting.

The diagram shows how air
pressure is used to force the molten
metal in the ladle upward into the
mould cavity. Pressure is
maintained until the casting has
solidified.

VARIATIONS OF PERMANENT--mould CASTING
• Vacuum Permanent-mould Casting: Not to be confused with vacuum
moulding, this process is a variation of low-pressure casting in which a vacuum is
used to draw the molten metal into the mould cavity. The general configuration
of the vacuum permanent mould casting process is similar to the low-pressure
casting operation. The difference is that reduced air pressure from the vacuum in
the mould is used to draw the liquid metal into the cavity, rather than forcing it by
positive air pressure from below. There are several benefits of the vacuum
technique relative to low-pressure casting: air porosity and related defects are
reduced, and greater strength is given to the cast product.

Vacuum Casting
1. Mixture of fine sand and
urethane is moulded over
metal dies a cured with
amine vapor
2. The mould is partially
immersed into molten metal
held in an induction furnace
3. The metal is melted in air or
in a vacuum
4. The molten metal is usually
55 C above the liquidus
temperature – begins to
solidify within a fraction of a
second
FIGURE: Schematic illustration of the vacuum-
5. Alternative to investment, casting process. Note that the mould has a
shell-mould, and green-sand bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion
casting of the mod into the molten metal. Source: After
6. Relatively low cost R. Blackburn.

Pressure Casting
(a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite moulds for the productin of
steel railroad wheels. (b) Gravity pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note
that the pouring basin also serves as a riser.
•Used a graphite or metal mould
•Molten metal is forced into the mould by gas pressure
•The pressure is maintained until the metal solidifies in the mould
•Used for high-quality castings
Multi use moulds: Die casting
• The term die is used for permanent mould.
• In this process the molten metal is forced into the permanent mould
(dies) under high pressure.
• The molten metal fills the entire die, including the minute details.
• On solidification the casting is taken out.
• Thus High pressure die casting uses a piston to inject the molten
metal into the die.
• This greatly speeds the process, and therefore increases production.
• This results in a more uniform part, generally good surface finish
and good dimensional accuracy, as good as 0.2 % of casting
dimension.
• For many parts, post-machining can be totally eliminated, or very
light machining may be required to bring dimensions to size.
• There are two types of high pressure die casting: hot chamber and
cold chamber.
• Hot chamber die casting:
• The melting unit of the metal forms an integral part of the machine.
• The plunger is made up of refractory material.
• When the plunger is raised, it uncovers an opening in the cylinder
wall, through which molten metal enters, filling the cylinder.
• The molten metal is forced into the die either by hydraulic pressure
or by air pressure applied to the plunger.

• As soon as the metal solidifies, the pressure on the metal is relieved
and the plunger travels upwards to its original position.
• The casting is ejected from the die by means of ejector pins.
• This process is particularly suitable for lead, tin and zinc alloys.
• Hot chamber die casting cannot be used for metals having high
melting temperatures.
• Also it can be used to cast metals like aluminum, copper etc. which
will react with steel at high temperature.

Die Casting in Hot-Chamber Process
FIGURE: Sequence of steps in die casting of a part in the hot-chamber process.

Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.
Hot chamber die casting

• Cold chamber die casting:
• In cold chamber die casting the plunger is horizontal and is driven
by air or hydraulic pressure to force the molten metal in to the die.
• As soon as the ladle is emptied, plunger moves forward and forces
the metal into the cavity of the die.
• After the metal solidifies, the core is with drawn, and then the die is
opened.
• Ejector pins are employed to remove the casting automatically from
the die.

• The cold chamber die casting is particularly suitable for metal such
as aluminum alloys, magnesium, copper, which cannot be cast in
hot chamber machines due to reactivity with molten aluminum and
steel.
• High melting temperature alloys of non-ferrous type are best die
cast in cold chamber die casting.

Die Casting in Cold-Chamber Process
FIGURE: Sequence of operations in die casting of a part in the cold-chamber

process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.

Operation sequence of cold chamber process.

Construction of a cold chamber machine

Various types of cavities in a die casting die.
a) Single – cavity die
b) Multiple – cavity die
c) Combination die
d) Unit die

Die--Casting Alloys
ALLOY ULTIMATE YIELD ELONGA‐TION APPLICATIONS

TENSILE STRENGTH in 50 mm
STRENGTH (MPa) (%)
(MPa)
Aluminum 380 320 160 2.5 Appliances, automotive components, electrical
(3.5 Cu‐8.5 Si) motor frames and housings, engine blocks.
13 (12 Si) 300 150 2.5 Complex shapes with thin walls, parts requiring
strength at elevated temperatures
Brass 858 (60 Cu) 380 200 15 Plumbing fixtures, lock hardware, bushings,
ornamental castings
Magnesium AZ91B (9 Al – 0.7 Zn) 230 160 3 Power tools, automotive parts, sporting goods
Zinc No. 3 (4 Al) 280 ‐ 10 Automotive parts, office equipment, household
utensils, building hardware, toys
5 (4 Al – 1 Cu) 320 ‐ 7 Appliances, automotive parts, building hardware,
business equipment
TABLE : Properties and typical applications of common die-casting alloys.

• Advantages of die casting:
• Very high production rates are possible. Typical rate could be
200 pieces per hour since the process is completely automated.
• Thin sections can be cast. Very small thicknesses can be easily
filled because the liquid metal is injected at high pressure.
Surface of about 0.8 microns can be achieved.
• Close dimensional tolerances of the order of 0.0025mm is
possible.
• Because of the use of the movable cores, it is possible to obtain
fairly complex castings.
• Fine details may be produced.
• Less floor space is required.

• Limitations of die casting:
• Not economical for small runs. The dies and the machines are
very expensive and therefore, economy in production is possible
only when large quantities are produced.
• Only economical for non-ferrous alloys.
• Due to high temperature of molten metal, die life decreases.
• The air in the die cavity gets trapped inside the casting and is
therefore a problem often with the diecastings.
• The maximum size of the casting is limited. The normal sizes are
under 4 kg with a maximum of the order of 15 kg because of the
limitation on the machine capacity.

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting
• Centrifugal casting are of three types:
– True centrifugal casting: Long moulds are rotated about a
horizontal axis. This can be used to make long axial parts such
as seamless pipes.
– Semi centrifugal casting: Parts with a wide radial parts. Parts
such as wheels with spokes can be made with this technique
– Centrifuging: The moulds are placed a distance from the
center of rotation. Thus when the poured metal reaches the
moulds there is a high pressure available to completely fill the
cavities. The distance from the axis of rotation can be increased
to change the properties

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (True centrifugal casting)
• A mould is set up and rotated along a inclined or horizontal (200-
1000 rpm) axis.
• The mould is coated with a refractory coating.
• While rotating molten metal is poured in.
• The metal that is poured in will then distribute itself over the
rotating wall.
• During cooling lower density impurities will tend to rise towards
the center of rotation.
• After the part has solidified, it is removed and finished.

Centrifugal Casting Process
FIGURE: Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder

liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast by this process.

• Advantages:
• The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast jobs are better
compared to other processes, because the inclusions such as slag
and oxides gets segregated towards the centre and can be easily
removed by machining. Also, the pressure acting on the metal
throughout the solidification, causes the porosity to be eliminated
giving rise to dense metal.
• Good uniform metal properties
• No sprues/gates to remove
• The outside of the casting is at the required dimensions
• Lower material usage
• No cores are required for making concentric holes in the case of
true centrifugal casting.

• Disadvantages:
• Extra equipment needed to spin mould
• The inner metal of the part contains impurities .
• Only certain shapes which are axi-symmetric and having
concentric holes are suitable for true centrifugal casting.
• The equipment is expensive and thus is suitable only for large
quantity production.

Semi--centrifugal and centrifuging Casting Process
FIGURE: (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of casting by centrifuging. The moulds are placed at the periphery of the machine,
and the molten metal is forced into the moulds by centrifugal forces.

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Semi centrifugal casting)

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Semi centrifugal casting)
• In this method, centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings, as in Figure,
rather than tubular parts. The rotation speed in semi-centrifugal casting is usually
set so that G-factors of around 15 are obtained, and the moulds are designed with
risers at the center to supply feed metal. Density of metal in the final casting is
greater in the outer sections than at the center of rotation. The process is often
used on parts in which the center of the casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion of the casting where the quality is lowest. Wheels and
pulleys are examples of castings that can be made by this process.
FIGURE: Semicentrifugal casting.

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Centrifuging)

Multi use moulds: Centrifugal casting (Centrifuging)
• In centrifuge casting, the mould is designed with part cavities located away from
the axis of rotation, so that the molten metal poured into the mould is distributed
to these cavities by centrifugal force. The process is used for smaller parts, and
radial symmetry of the part is not a requirement as it is for the other two
centrifugal casting methods.
FIGURE: (a) Centrifuge casting—centrifugal force causes metal to flow to the mould
cavities away from the axis of rotation; and (b) the casting.

Multi use moulds: Continuous casting
• The traditional method of making Steel and Aluminum includes
making ingots from molten metal.
• However, continuous casting has become very popular for
productivity reasons.
• Continuous steel casting produces higher quality steel and
aluminum at reduced cost; this is because there are:
– No ingots with uneven alloying; giving a better product.
– No moulds from which the ingot must be separated
– Continuous casting commonly takes place in processes where
long metal slabs must be created continuously.
– The process involves a ladle car that delivers molten steel to a
tundish. This large container then allows a continuous flow of
steel to exit into two or more container/”nozzles”.
– Water mist or spray cooling is used to solidify the steel at
appropriate rates..



Comparison of casting processes

Casting defects
• Several types of defects may occur during casting, considerably reducing the total
output of castings besides increasing the cost of their production.
• It is therefore essential to understand the causes behind these defects so that they may
be suitably eliminated.
• Casting defects may be defined as those characteristics that create a imperfection or
deficiency contrary to the quality specifications imposed by the design and service
requirements.
• Defects in castings do not just happen. They are caused by faulty procedure (1) in one
or more of the operations involved in the casting process, (2) in the equipment used,
or (3) by the design of the part. A casting defect is often caused by a combination of
factors which makes rapid interpretation and correction of the defect difficult
• The most common casting defects can be classified into the following categories:
– Gas defects
– Shrinkage cavities
– moulding material defects
– Pouring metal defects
– Metallurgical defects
– mould preparation defects.

Casting defects (Gas defects)
• Blow holes and open blows:
– These are the spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside
the casting or on the surface. A blow or blowhole is a smooth cavity
caused by gas in the molten metal.
– On the surface they are called open blows and inside, they are called
blow holes.
– It is an excessively smooth depression on the outer surface of a
casting. Blow holes are entrapped bubbles of gases with smooth walls.
– Causes:
• High moisture content in the moulding sand.
• Low permeability of moulding sand.
• Hard ramming of the sand.
• Improper venting.
– Remedies:
• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper venting and
using proper moulding sand.

Cooling For Sand Mould

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FIGURE: Temperature distribution at the mould wall and liquid-metal interface

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

FIGURE : Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting,

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

FIGURE: Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in a

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

FIGURE: Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

• Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

FIGURE: Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Common methods of making shell moulds.

(d) Pattern and shell removed from dump box

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Figures showing two different shell moulds

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

FIGURE :Schematic illustration

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

2. ASSEMBLY : The patterns are attached

3. SHELL BUILDING : The shell is built by

4. DEWAX : Once the ceramic is dry, the wax is

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

• mould is made of plaster

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose

• Mixture made of:

• Mixture is mixed with bonding

• Mixture is mixed with bonding

Lecture notes on PE 5001 Manufacturing Process II, Joyjeet Ghose