EMT 462

ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM
TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 4:
AC Meters
By:
En. Muhammad Mahyiddin Ramli
Alternating Current Waveform

Sinusoidal wave

Square wave

Triangle wave

Chap 4: AC Meters 2
Alternating Current Waveform

Chap 4: AC Meters 3
Chap 4: AC Meters 4
Average and RMS Value

Vavg = 0

Vrms = 0.707Vp

Sine Wave

Vavg = 0.636Vp

Vrms = 0.707Vp

Full Wave

Chap 4: AC Meters 5
Con’t

Vavg = 0.318Vp

Vrms = 0.5Vp

Half Wave

Chap 4: AC Meters 6
Five Principal Meter Movements Used
In AC Instrument

 1. Electrodynamometer
 2. Iron Vane
 3. Electrostatic
 4. Thermocouple
 5. D’Arsonval with rectifier

Chap 4: AC Meters 7
Application of Meter Movements

Meter DC Use AC Use Applications

Movement
Electrodynamometer YES YES Standards meter, wattmeter, frequency meter
“Indicator” applications such as in
automobiles
Iron Vane YES YES “Indicator” applications such as in
automobiles

Electrostatic YES YES Measurement of high voltage when very little

current can be supplied by the circuit being
measured
Thermocouple YES YES Measurement of radio frequency ac signal

D’Arsonval YES YES with Most widely used meter movement for
rectifier measuring direct current or voltage and
resistance

Chap 4: AC Meters 8
PMMC Instrument on AC

 The PMMC instrument is polarized (terminals +ve & -ve) - it must

be connected correctly for positive (on scale) deflection to occur.
 When an AC with a very low frequency is passed through a PMMC,
the pointer tends to follow the instantaneous level of the AC
 As the current grows positively, the pointer deflection increases to a
maximum at the peak of the AC
 As the instantaneous current level falls, the pointer deflection
decreases toward zero. When the AC goes negative, the pointer
deflected (off scale) to the left of zero
 This kind of pointer movement can occur only with AC having a
frequency of perhaps 0.1Hz or lower

Chap 4: AC Meters 9
 PMMC Instrument on AC

 At 50Hz or higher supply frequencies - the damping mechanism of the

instrument and the inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer from
following the changing instantaneous levels.

 The average value of purely sinusoidal AC is zero.

 Therefore, a PMMC instrument connected directly to measure 50Hz AC

indicates zero average value.

 It is important to note that although a PMMC instrument connected to an

ac supply may indicating zero, there can actually be very large rms current
flowing in its coils

Chap 4: AC Meters 10
Two Types of PMMC Meter Used In AC
Measurement

 1. Half wave rectification

 2. Full wave rectification

Chap 4: AC Meters 11
D’Arsonval meter movement used with half
wave rectification
To convert alternating current (AC) to unidirectional current
flow, which produces positive deflection when passed through
a PMMC, the diode rectifier is used. Several types of rectifiers
are selected such as a copper oxide rectifier, a vacuum diode, or
semiconductor or “crystal diode”.
VP
Vrms 
2

Vave Vdc  0.318Vp

Vp 2  Vrms
Vave    0.45Vrms
 
Chap 4: AC Meters 12
Con’t

 For example, if the output voltage from a half wave rectifier is

10Vrms so the dc voltmeter will provide an indication of
approximately 4.5V dc  Therefore, the pointer deflected full scale
when 10V dc signal is applied.

 When we apply a 10Vrms sinusoidal AC waveform, the pointer

will deflect to 4.5V  This means that the AC voltmeter is not as
sensitive as DC voltmeter.

 In fact, an AC voltmeter using half wave rectification is only

approximately 45% as sensitive as a dc voltmeter.

Chap 4: AC Meters 13
Con’t
 Actually, the circuit would probably be designed for full-scale
deflection with a 10V rms AC applied, which means the multiplier
resistor would be only 45% of the value of the multiplier resistor for
10V dc voltmeter. Since we have seen that the equivalent dc voltage
is equal to 45% of the rms value of the ac voltage.

E dc 0.45E rms
Rs   Rm   Rm
I dc I dc

Sac = 0.45Sdc

Chap 4: AC Meters 14
Example 3.1

 Compute the value of the multiplier resistor for

a 10Vrms ac range on the voltmeter shown
below:
RS

Ifs = 1mA
Ein = 15Vrms
Rm = 300Ω

AC voltmeter using half wave rectification

Chap 4: AC Meters 15
Solution
 Method 1
 The sensitivity of meter movement

1 1
Sdc    1k / V
I fs 1m

Rs = Sdc × Rangedc – Rm

0.45E rms - Rm
= 1k ×
1
= 1k × 0.45(10) – 300

= 4.2k

Chap 4: AC Meters 16
Con’t
 Method 2
 The AC sensitivity for half way rectifier

Sac = 0.45Sdc = 0.45(1k) = 450/V

Rs = Sac × Rangeac – Rm

= 450 × 10 –300

= 4.2k

Chap 4: AC Meters 17
 D’Arsonval meter movement used with full wave
rectification
 Electrodynamometer, Iron-vane meter, thermocouple
meter
 Loading effects of AC Voltmeter

Chap 4: AC Meters 18
 D’Arsonval Meter Movement Used With Full
Wave Rectification

Full bridge rectifier used

in an ac voltmeter circuit

During the positive half cycle, currents flows through diode D2, through
the meter movement from positive to negative, and through diode D3. The
polarities in circles on the transformer secondary are for the positive half
cycle. Since current flows through the meter movement on both half
cycles, we can expect the deflection of the pointer to be greater than with
the half wave cycle, which allows current to flow only on every other half
cycle; if the deflection remains the same, the instrument using full wave
rectification will have a greater sensitivity.
Chap 4: AC Meters 19
Consider the following circuit:

AC voltmeter using full wave rectification

Chap 4: AC Meters 20
 Con’t

When the 10Vrms of AC signal is applied to the circuit

above, where the peak value of the AC input signal is

E p  2 xE rms  1.414 x (10)  14.14V

And the average full wave output signal is

E ave  E dc  0.636xE p  0.636x14.14  9V

Therefore, we can see that a 10Vrms voltage is equivalent
to 9Vdc for full-scale deflection.

Chap 4: AC Meters 21
Con’t

Or

E avg  0.636E p  0.636( 2 xE rms )  0.9E rms

This means an ac voltmeter using full wave rectification

has a sensitivity equal to 90% of the dc sensitivity

Sac = 0.9 Sdc

Chap 4: AC Meters 22
Example 3.2

Compute the value of the multiplier resistor for a

10Vrms ac range on the voltmeter in Figure 1-2.

AC voltmeter circuit using full wave rectification

Chap 4: AC Meters 23
Solution

The dc sensitivity is:

1 1
Sdc    1k / V
I fs 1mA

The ac sensitivity is:

Sac = 0.9Sdc = 0.9 (1k) = 900 /V

Chap 4: AC Meters 24
Con’t

Therefore the multiplier resistor is:

Rs = Sac x Range – Rm

= 900 x 10Vrms – 500

= 8.5k

Chap 4: AC Meters 25
Notice

Note:
 Voltmeters using half wave and full wave
rectification are suitable for measuring
sinusoidal ac voltages only.

Chap 4: AC Meters 26
Electrodynamometer Movement

Source

Fixed Coil Moving Fixed Coil

Coil

 Most fundamental and versatile meter use today.

 Is a current-sensitive device – the pointer deflects up scale because of
current flow through moving coil.
 Most important applications: voltmeter and ammeter standard.

Chap 4: AC Meters 27
 Electrodynamometer Movement
 The single-coil electrodynamometer movement consists of a fixed coil divided into
two equal halves.
 Both halves of the split fixed coil and the moving coil are connected in series –
current from the circuit being measured passed through all the coils causing
magnetic field around the fixed coils. The moving coil rotates in this magnetic
field.
 The electrodynamometer – handle much more current than d’ Arsonval
movement. It can handle ~ 100mA.
 The electrodynamometer – have a very low sensitivity rating of ~ 20 to 100 Ω/V.
 Most extensive application: Wattmeter.
 The magnetic torque that cause pointer deflect up scale:

 m  K m El cos 
Θm – angular deflection of the pointer E – rms value of source voltage
Km – instrument constant (degrees/watt) l – rms value of source current
cos θ – power factor

Chap 4: AC Meters 28
Electrodynamometer Work Principle

Chap 4: AC Meters 29
 Iron-Vane Meter Movement

• The iron-vane meter movement

consists of a fixed coil of many turns
and two iron vanes placed inside the
fixed coil.
• it is widely used in industry. I
• the current can be measured passes
through the winding of the fixed coil
setting up a magnetic field that
magnetized the two iron vanes with
the same polarity.

Chap 4: AC Meters 30
Iron-Vane Meter Movement

 If one iron vanes is attached to the frame of a fixed coil – the other
iron vane will then be repelled by amount related to the square of
current.
 Although it is responsive to direct current (the hysteresis) – the iron
vanes causes appreciable error. (used only for a very inexpensive
indicators, i.e charge-discharge indicators on automobiles).
 It is used extensively in industry for measuring ac when errors on
the order of 5% to 10% are acceptable.
 Iron-vane movement very sensitive to frequency change (25 – 125
Hz) - it is because the magnetization of the iron vane is nonlinear.

Chap 4: AC Meters 31
Iron-Vane Meter Movement

Chap 4: AC Meters 32
Loading Effect of AC Voltmeter

The sensitivity of ac voltmeters, using either

half wave or full wave rectification, is less than
the sensitivity of dc voltmeters. Therefore,
loading effect of an ac voltmeter is greater
than that of a dc voltmeter.

Sac = 0.45Sdc

Sac = 0.9Sdc

Chap 4: AC Meters 33
Voltage and Current
Transformer Applications

 Calibrating AC voltmeters and ammeters for different full-

scale ranges of operation is much the same as with DC
instruments: series "multiplier" resistors are used to give
voltmeter movement a higher range, and parallel "shunt"
resistors are used to allow ammeter movements to measure
currents beyond their natural range.

 However, we are not limited to these techniques as we were

with DC: because we can use transformers with AC too.

Chap 4: AC Meters 34
Success is the ability to go from
one failure to another with no
loss of enthusiasm.

- Sir Winston Churchill

Chap 4: AC Meters 35