BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TRANSFORMERS
.
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Contents:
 Introduction
 Types
 Principles of operation
 Construction
 Equation of transformer
 Losses and efficiency
 Voltage Regulation

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What is Transformer?
 Transformer is an ac machine that
 Transfers electrical energy from one electric circuit to another
electric circuit
 It basically changes the level of voltages from one value to the other at
constant frequency.
 Does so by the principle of electromagnetic induction
 Has electric circuits that are linked by common electric circuit

 Since the construction of a transformer requires no moving

parts it is known as static transformer.

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Types Transformer
 There are two types
 Step Down Transformer
 Step Up Transformer

• Step Up Transformer:
 When the output voltage of a transformer is higher than input
voltage then the transformer is known as step up transformer.

 Step Down Transformer:

 When the input voltage of a transformer is higher than output
voltage then the transformer is known as step up transformer.

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Principle of Operation of Transformer
 A transformer in its simplest form will consist of a rectangular
laminated magnetic structure on which two coils of different number
of turns are wound as shown in Figure

 Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction of two coils.

 When current in the primary coil is changed the flux linked to the
secondary coil also changes
 Consequently an EMF is induced in the secondary coil.

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Construction of a Transformer
 Two types of iron-core construction:
a) Core - type construction
b) Shell - type construction

 Core - Type Construction:

 When alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, an
alternating current will flow that will magnetize the magnetic
core.
 First in one direction and then in the other direction.
This alternating flux flowing around the entire length of the
magnetic circuit induces a voltage in both primary &
secondary windings.
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Cont…
 Since both windings are linked by the same flux , voltage
induced per turn of the primary and secondary
windings must be the same value and same direction.

 This voltage opposes the voltage applied to the primary

winding and is called counter-electromotive force (CEMF).

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Shell - Type Construction
 The shell-type transformer is considered the most efficient.
Such transformers are used in transmitting commercial power.

 The core of the shell-type transformer is made of laminated

silicon steel sheets placed on top of one another.

 The coils are wound around

the central section of the core.

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Cont...
 Since the primary and secondary coils are wound close together
around the core, the windings must be highly insulated. A
special insulating material is coated on the wires of both coils.

 For the high voltage used in x-ray, the entire transformer is

immersed in a container filled with a special insulating oil or
gas. The insulating oil also helps to cool the transformer during
operation.

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Transformer on DC
 Transformer can not work on DC
 because if the dc voltage is applied to the primary of the
transformer then the flux linking with the primary will not
vary and will remain constant in magnitude. Therefore no
emf is induced in the secondary.

 Also there is no self induced emf in primary. The resistance

of primary coil is very low and a high current will flow
across the primary which will result burning of primary coil
according to ohm’s law.
V=IR
This is the reason that DC is never applied to transformers.
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Ideal Transformer
 An ideal transformer is a transformer which has no loses, i.e.
it’s winding has no ohmic resistance, no magnetic leakage, and
therefore no I2 R and core loses.

 However, it is impossible to realize such a transformer in

practice.

 Yet, the approximate characteristic of ideal transformer will be

used in characterized the practical transformer
N1 : N2

Thus udder no load condition, I1 I2

V1 E1 E2 V2

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Transformer Equation

 Faraday’s Law states that,

 If the flux passes through a coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in
the turns of wire. This voltage is directly proportional to the rate of
change in the flux with respect of time.

d (t )
Vind  Emfind 
dt

If we have N turns of wire, Lenz’s Law

d(t )
Vind  Emfind  N
dt
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Transformer Equation
 For an ac sources,
 Let V(t) = Vm sint
i(t) = im sint
Since the flux is a sinusoidal function;
Then:
Therefore: (t )   m sin t
d m sin t
Vind  Emfind   N
dt
  N m cos t
Thus:
Vind  Emfind (max)  N m  2fN m
N m 2fN m
Emfind ( rms)    4.44 fN m
2 2
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 Transformer Equation
 For an ideal transformer
E1  4.44 fN1 m ………………… (i)
E2  4.44 fN2 m
 In the equilibrium condition, both the input power will be equaled to the output power,
and this condition is said to ideal condition of a transformer.

Input power  output power

V1 I1 cos   V2 I 2 cos 
V1 I 2
 
V2 I1
 From the ideal transformer circuit, note that,

E1  V1 and E2  V2
 Hence, substitute in (i)

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 Transformer Equation N1 : N2

I1 I2

E1 N1 I 2 V1 E1 E2 V2
Therefore,   a
E 2 N 2 I1

Where, ‘a’ is the Voltage Transformation Ratio; which will

determine whether the transformer is going to be step-up
or step-down

For a >1 E1 > E2

For a <1 E1 < E2

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 Transformer Rating
 Transformer rating is normally written in terms of Apparent
Power.
 Apparent power is actually the product of its rated current and
rated voltage.

VA  V1I1  V2 I 2
 Where,
 I1 and I2 = rated current on primary and secondary winding.
 V1 and V2 = rated voltage on primary and secondary winding.

 Rated currents are actually the full load currents in

transformer
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Transformer Losses
Generally, there are two types of losses:
 Iron or core losses
i. Hysteresis Loss
ii. Eddy Current Loss
 Copper or ohmic losses

 Iron losses are of two types and these are expressed as:

Piron=Pc=(Ic)2Rc=Popen circuit

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  Eddy Currents:
 Eddy currents induced in the core cause the core to heat,
resulting in power loss in the transformer.

 To reduce eddy currents to a minimum, the material making up

the transformer core is laminated and each strip is sprayed with
an insulating coating.

 Hysteresis Losses:
 Since the use of AC causes a rapidly changing magnetic field,
there is a continuous reversal of the magnetic polarity in the core
of the transformer.
 The tiny magnetic particles in the core are constantly shifted
around, arranging themselves first in one direction and then in
another, resulting in the development of friction between the
molecules, which produces heat in the core
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  Since the electrical energy required to shift the molecules around
must come from the primary current, some electrical energy is
wasted.

 This loss, hysteresis, can be lessened by using a core material of high

permeability

 Copper or ohmic losses:

 Copper loss is power lost in the primary and secondary
windings of a transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the
windings. Copper loss, in watts, can be found using Equation
 Copper Loss= I2P RP+ I2S RS

 IP = primary current
 IS =secondary current
 RP =primary winding resistance
 RS =secondary winding resistance
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 Transformer Efficiency
 The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of useful
power output to the input power.

 Power output = power input – power losses

 Power input = power output + total losses
 = power output + Pi + Pcu

Output Power
Efficiency,  100%
Input Power
Pout VA cos 
 100%  ( fullload)  100%
Pout  Plosses VA cos   Pc  Pcu
V2 I 2 cos  nVA cos 
 100%  (load n )  100%
V2 I 2 cos   Pc  Pcu nVA cos   Pc  n Pcu
2

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 Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation is the percentage of voltage
difference between no load and full load voltages of a
transformer with respect to its full load voltage.

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 Voltage Regulation

 Say a electrical power transformer is open circuited means load

is not connected with secondary terminals. In this situation the
secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be its
secondary induced emf E2. Whenever full load is connected to
the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated current
I2 flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drops comes
into picture. At this situation, primary winding will also draw
equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in
the secondary is I2Z2where Z2 is the secondary impedance of
transformer. If now, at this loading condition any one measures
the voltage between secondary terminals, he or she will get
voltage V2 across load terminals which is obviously less than
no load secondary voltage E2 and this is because of I2Z2 voltage
drop in the transformer.

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 Numerical
 The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000-volts,
50-Hz single-phase transformer is 1.2 Wb/m2. If the e.m.f.
per turn is 8 volt, determine
 (i) primary and secondary turns (ii) area of the core.

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Question: A 10 kVA, 500/250 V, single-phase transformer has its maximum
efficiency of 94% when delivering 90% of its rated output at unity p.f. Estimate its
efficiency when delivering its full-load output at p.f. of 0.8 lagging.
 Rated output at unity p.f. = 10000 W. Hence, 90% of rated output = 9,000 W
 Input with 94% efficiency = 9000/0.94 W
 Losses = 9000((1/0.94) − 1) = 574 W
 At maximum efficiency, variable copper-loss = constant = Core loss = 574/2 = 287
W
 At rated current, Let the copper-loss = Pc watts
 At 90% load with unity p.f., the copper-loss is expressed as 0.90^2 × Pc.
 Hence, Pc = 287/0.81 = 354 W
 (b) Output at full-load, 0.8 lag p.f. = 10,000 × 0.80 = 8000 W
 At the corresponding load, Full Load copper-loss = 354 W
 Hence, efficiency = 8000/(8000 + 354 + 287) = 0.926 = 92.6%

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A 400 kVA transformer has a primary winding resistance of 0.5 and a secondary winding
resistance of 0.001. The iron loss is 2.5kW and the primary and secondary voltages are 5
kV and 320V respectively. If the power factor of the load is 0.85, determine the efficiency of
the transformer (a) on full load, and (b) on half load

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INDUCTION
MOTOR
 An induction motor works on transforming action(Faraday
law of Electro-magnetic induction) which state that an
induced EMF is established in the circuit whenever the
magnetic field linking that circuit is changed.

 These motors are simple ,rugged, need less maintenance

and are less expensive(for the same volt, rpm, torque) and
has characteristics to suit industrial requirements , high
efficiency .

 The stator works as the primary while the rotor works as

the secondary.

 Applications : Fans, pumps, exhaust , roller coaster, trains,

Spindle drives , lifts,cranes ,blowers
 Construction of Induction Motor

 It consists of two parts:

1. Stator - It is the stationary part of the motor.

It is a hollow cylindrical structure, it is made up of sheet
steel lamination each about 0.4 mm thick , the slots are open
for large motors to facilitate the insertion of coils, for small
motors the slots are generally closed and are inserted
through the narrow opening.
2. Rotor - It is the rotating part of the motor.
It is the inner cylindrical core
 Slots Tooth

Stator Stamping
SLOTS CORE

WINDINGS
Stator has three main parts:

 Outer Frame – It is the outer body of the of

the motor.
It protects the inner part of the machine.
It serve as ventilating housing
 Stator Core – it has to carry magnetic flux which can
produce hysteresis and eddy current losses, Built up of
high grade silicon steel.
Stator winding – Has a three phase winding the
winding can be star or delta connected.
 Stator
It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow,
cylindrical core made up of thin laminations of steel to
reduce hysteresis and Eddy current losses.
The insulated conductors are placed in the slots to form
balanced 3 phase star or delta circuit.
Greater is the pole less is the speed.
When a 3 phase supply is given to the stator winding , a
rotating magnetic field is produced.
This rotating field induces currents in the rotor by EMI.
 Rotor is an iron laminated cylinder with large
embedded conductors in the form of copper
or aluminum bars in the semi-closed slots.

 There are two types of rotors which are

employed in 3 – phase induction motor.

 Squirrel Cage Rotor.

 Phase Wound/ Slip Ring Rotor.

 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core
having semi closed circular slots at the outer
periphery.
 Copper or aluminum bar conductors are placed
in these slots and short circuited at each end by
copper or aluminum rings called short
circuiting rings.
 The rotor winding is permanently short
circuited and it is not possible to add any
external resistance.
 The rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but
skewed to –

 Reduce humming .

 Provide smoother torque for different positions of

rotor.

 Reduce magnetic locking of stator and rotor.

 Squirrel cage three phase induction motor: The rotor of the squirrel cage three
phase induction motor is cylindrical in shape and have slots on its periphery. The
slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed (skewing is not shown
in the figure of squirrel cadge rotor beside) as the skewing prevents magnetic
locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of motor more smooth and
quieter. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars (copper
bras rotor is shown in the figure beside). These aluminum, brass or copper bars are
called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The
rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminum rings called
the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor conductor are
braced to the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a
cage and hence got its name as ‘squirrel cage induction motor”.
 The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As the bars are
permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor resistance is very small and it is
not possible to add external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted.
The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of Squirrel
cage three phase induction motor very simple and robust and hence widely
used three phase induction motor. These motors have the advantage of
adapting any number of pole pairs. The below diagram shows squirrel cage
induction rotor having aluminum bars short circuit by aluminum end rings.

Advantages of squirrel cage induction rotor-
 1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.
 2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors
requires less maintenance.
 Applications:
Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling
machine, fan, blower printing machines etc
 It is also called SLIP RING ROTOR

 Consists of a laminated core having semi closed slots

at the outer periphery and carries a 3-phase insulated
winding.

 The rotor is wound for the same number of poles as

that of stator.

 The three finish terminals are connected together

forming a star point and the three star terminals are
connected to three slip rings fixed on the shaft.
Slip ring / wound three phase
induction motor
• In this type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound for the same number of poles as
that of stator but it has less number of slots and has less turns per phase of a heavier conductor.
• The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of stator winding. The rotor consists
of numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside these slots. The three end terminals are
connected together to form star connection.
• As its name indicates three phase slip ring induction motor consists of slip rings connected on
same shaft as that of rotor.
• The three ends of three phase windings are permanently connected to these slip rings. The
external resistance can be easily connected through the brushes and slip rings and hence used
for speed control and improving the starting torque of three phase induction motor.
• The brushes are used to carry current to and from the rotor winding. These brushes are further
connected to three phase star connected resistances.
• At starting, the resistance are connected in rotor circuit and is gradually cut out as the rotor
pick up its speed.
• This reduces wear and tear of the brushes. Due to presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor
construction becomes somewhat complicated therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel
cage induction motor.
Advantages of slip ring induction motor -
• 1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.
• 2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control
speed
• Application:
• Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting
torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes, elevator etc
and Squirrel Cage Induction
Motor
 Principle of Operation
 A rotating field is set up in the stator when a 3- Phase
supply is given.

 The stationary rotor cut the revolving field and due to

electromagnetic induction an e.m.f. is induced in the rotor
conductor.

 As the rotor conductor is short circuited current flows

through them.

 It becomes a current carrying conductor in magnetic field

and start rotating.
Slip

 Induction motor rotor always rotate at a speed less than

synchronous speed.
 The difference between the flux (Ns) and the rotor speed (N)
is called slip.

% Slip = (Ns – N) × 100

Ns

Slip speed = Ns – N
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Working

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SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR

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Issues to be addressed in the unit
 Motor Basics
 Motor parameters
 Basic construction and operating features of DC motors
 Torque and EMF characteristics of DC motor
 Speed characteristics and Regulation
 Applications of DC motor

Electrical Engineering 79
Motor Basics
 Motors convert electric energy to mechanical motion.
 Either an AC or DC electrical energy source serves as
the input to the motor.
 Motors are powered by electricity, but rely on principles
of magnetism to produce mechanical motion.
 The result is mechanical motion of the output shaft, that
is a rotation about or a translation along the shaft,
provided the load carried by the shaft does not exceed
the maximum load the motor is designed to carry.

Electrical Engineering 80
Motor Parameters
 The level of performance a motor can provide is
described by its parameters. These include:
 Rated Speed
◦ Speed measured in shaft revolutions per
minute (RPM), a way to specify how fast the
motor turns.
 Torque
◦ Rotational force produced around a given
point, due to a force applied at a radius from
that point
 Torque-Speed performance of a motor
Electrical Engineering 81
Construction of DC motor
Every DC motor has six basic parts :
•Shaft
• Rotor (Armature)
• Stator
• Commutator
• Field magnet(s) / Poles

For a small motor the magnets is

• Brushes
made from permanent magnet
DC motor : Components
• Field pole
• North pole and south pole
• Receive electricity to form magnetic field

• Armature
• Cylinder between the poles
• Consists of coils of insulated wires wound around an iron
and so arranged that electric current are induced in these
wires, when armature is rotating.
• Electromagnet when current goes through
• Linked to drive shaft to drive the load

Electrical Engineering 83
DC Motor : Components
• Commutator
• Form of rotating switch placed between armature and
external circuit.
• Reverse the current direction between the rotor and external
circuit.
• Overturns current direction in armature.
• Brushes
• To collect current from the commutator and supply it to
external load circuit.

Electrical engineering 84
Operating principle of DC
motor
 Electrical current flowing in a loop of wire will produce a
magnetic field across the loop.

When this loop is

surrounded by the field
of another magnet, the
loop will turn,
producing a force
(called torque) that
results in mechanical
motion.

Electrical Engineering 85
How the Commutator Works
 As the rotor turns, the commutator terminals also turn and
continuously reverse polarity of the current it gets from
the stationary brushes attached to the battery.

86
Controlling Motor Direction
 To change the direction of rotation:
Simply switch the polarity of the battery leads going to the
motor (that is, switch the + and – battery leads)

Direction of
Rotation

+ -
- +

Electrical engineering 87
DC motor rotation

Electrical Engineering 88
DC motor : Equivalent circuit
 As the rotor is rotating,
back emf (Ea) will be
Ia
produced, the faster the Ea motor
V
rotor turn the higher Ea
and the smaller Ia.
 The starting current of motors will be much higher
then the rating current.

Electrical engineering 89
 DC motor : Connections
Field winding Armature winding

 For big motors the magnet

is made from coil and core.
The current flowing in the
coil is called If and the
current flowing in the
armature is called Ia.
 The armature winding and
the field winding are
connected to a common
power supply

Electrical Engineering 90
DC motor : Types
1. Series DC motor :

Field and armature winding

are series connected, this type
of motor is called series DC
motor

Electrical Engineering 91
2. Shunt DC motor

Field and armature winding are

parallel connected, this type of
motor is called shunt DC motor

Electrical Engineering 92
3. Compound DC motor

Compound DC motor is DC
motor having 2 field winding the
first one is connected parallel to
the armature winding and the
other is connected series

Electrical Engineering 93
Characteristics of DC motor
 Torque (T):
T = KфIa
 EMF (E):
E=KфN
K is a constant
ф magnetic flux
Ia is armature current
N is speed of motor
Magnetic flux is constant if it is from permanent magnet

Electrical Engineering 94
Advantages of DC motor :
 High starting torque
 Speed control over a wide range,both above and
below normal speed
 Accurate seedless speed control
 Quick starting and stopping

Disadvantages of DC motor:
 High initial cost
 Increased operating and maintenance costs
because of commutator and brush gear
Electrical Engineering 95
pplications of DC motors:
 Lathes, Drills, Boring Mills, Shapers, Spinning and
Weaving Machines.
 Elevators, air compressors, vacuum cleaners, hair
drier
 Sewing machines, Presses

Electrical Engineering 96
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