Mineral Resources and Mining

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price forecasts

 This is one of three employment centers

for geologists, and it is presently enjoying
a boom. The other boom employers are:

 The Petroleum Industry

 The Environmental Industry

 Mineral Resources and Mining
Some definitions:
• Ore, Ore Mineral, Gangue, Resource < Reserve
• Reserves are profitable and also technically & legally extractable
• Commodities Au, Ag, Al, Coal, crude oil, Iron ore

• Is it profitable, i.e. “economic”? Consider futures price, costs of energy,

infrastructure, labor, processing and environmental protection & cleanup. To do
that we consider grade, type of deposit and type of processes feasible, special
environmental problems, etc.

Prospecting, Exploration & Development, Mining: often different

companies. Who should you work for when starting out?

Current conditions: Gold at 30 year high, crude oil futures near

record prices
As a geologist, you should keep an eye on Mineweb.com
Units 1 Metric Ton AKA tonne= 10^6 grams therefore a grade of 1 g/T = 1 ppm
Some Important Ores and a deposit
 Native Ores: Gold Au, Copper Cu, Platinum Pt
 Base Metal Ores: Bauxite (mostly Gibbsite Al(OH)3),
Hematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4
 Sulfide Ores: Silver as Argentite Ag2S, Copper as
Bornite Cu5FeS4, Chalcopyrite CuFeS2, or Chalcocite
Cu2S, Mercury as Cinnabar HgS, Lead as Galena
PbS, and Zinc as Sphalerite ZnS
 Oxide Ores: Uranium as Uraninite UO2, Titanium as
Ilmenite FeTiO3,
 Deposit: Kimberlites for Diamond C
Steps in obtaining mineral commodities
1. Prospecting: finding places where ores occur.
2. Mine exploration and development: learn whether ore
can be extracted economically.
3. Mining: extract ore from ground.
4. Beneficiation: separate ore minerals from other mined
rock. (Mill)
5. Refining: extract pure commodity from the
ore mineral. (Refinery)
6. Transporation: carry commodity to market.
7. Marketing and Sales: Find buyers and sell the
commodity.
Mining is an economic activity.
The decision to mine (or not to mine) a particular ore
deposit depends upon:
an analysis of costs, benefits and risks

These considerations are both:

• tangible (i.e. dollar profit)
and
• intangible (i.e. hopes of stimulating the economy,
fears of environmental damage)
3. Prospecting: finding where ores occur
Important Factors:
• Applying knowledge of association of ores with specific
geological settings.

• using remote sensing techniques such as satellite imagery, seismic reflection

profiles, magnetic field intensity, strength of gravity to detect geological
structures.
• photos useful in finding faults.
• small basaltic intrusions have prominent magnetic anomalies.
• dense ore bodies can have prominent gravity anomaly.
• developing detailed maps of rock types and geological structures (faults, folds,
intrusions).
• developing 3-d picture of geological structures containing ore.
• obtaining samples of ore for chemical analysis.

•WHERE DO WE LOOK?
A review from your Geology 1200 Course

Recall that several processes can produce

magmas. All are initially basaltic in
composition. Basalts contain minor amounts
of precious metals.

Late Fractionation Pegmatites

Hydrothermal MOR
Au, Ag

MOTHER LODE

Magmas can form near

subduction zones when
water causes partial
melting of nearby
mantle. Granitic
magmas form by
fractionation of basaltic
magmas and by
assimilation. Once the
granite has frozen,
silica-rich late
fractionation waters
with dissolved metals
are left to intrude
nearby rock.
Most searches near continental volcanic arcs
e.g. Andes (Inca Gold) , Sierra Nevada (1849 gold rush)
 Initially Basaltic, rising magma may become silica-rich through two processes.

Fractionation and Assimilation

Assimilation

Fractionation
Granitic melt genesis
 Metal-rich waters may originate from the magma or groundwater
Au, Ag

Metal ores precipitate

near surface

Heated
groundwater
dissolves metals

Two mechanisms for metals emplacement near granitic intrusions (both occur)
 Ore mineral Gold Au
Gold Ore

Gangue Mineral Quartz

Popular term “Mother Lode” initial placement

Ore Body
Placers: Gold is concentrated as a detrital sediment
Magma 2: formation at divergence zone

Seawater gets into

Black Smoker cracks, heats up near
on cracks near magma magma, dissolves metals Cu, Fe, etc
MOR in mafic rocks, convection
currents return hydrothermal
waters to cold ocean waters
(also ion-rich). Sulfides precipitate
forming a Black Smoker

Decompression melting
 Cu, Fe Black Smokers

Example:
Sterling Hill

Island of Cyprus made of

Ophiolites with black smokers.
Source of copper that started
bronze age

http://collections.ic.gc.ca/geoscience

Circulation of hot water in cracks at mid-ocean ridge dissolves metals in Basalt, (Copper, Iron, Zinc, Lead,
Barium) which are re-precipitated as various ores, often Sulfides. Accumulate in ocean sediments.
Magma formation 3: Plumes

Diamond exploration
C (diamond)
Subduction zones pull carbon down to depths necessary for Diamond
formation. Plumes rise from depths far below diamond formation depths. A
plume cutting across subduction zone will lift diamonds to the surface

Diamond exploration
 Seamount Trails point to the Kimberlite

Plumes cause straight chains of seamounts on the ocean floor

The Atlantic rift has moved America west of several plumes.
These were once under the continent, sometimes under old subduction zones.
Use chains of seamounts to point to old positions of the plumes’ “hot spot”.
Extend those lines onto North American continent
Find where those projected lines cross sutures between PreCambrian Cratons
assembling North America. Now use Google Earth to search for Maars

Here is a set of links related to this topic: Diamond exploration

Includes Bauxite enrichment from Laterites
Concentration of Aluminum as Bauxite Ore

From a Laterite similar to the one outside

Gibbsite Al(OH)3 is the main mineral in Bauxite ore

Petrology Field Trip to Bemco Mining District
 2. Mine exploration and development: learn
whether ore can be extracted economically
• Define size, shape and grade of ore body.
Grade, G: mass of commodity per mass of ore.
Gold: 5 grams of Au per metric ton (106 grams of ore)
Grade = 5 x 10-6.
Aluminum: 400 kg of Al per metric ton of ore, G=0.4
• Drill cores, though expensive, can be used to determine
underground extent of ore

Estimate the mass of the commodity:

= volume of ore body x density of ore body x grade).

1 metric ton = “tonne” is 1000 kilograms

Design a profitable plan for mining.
http://www.australianmines.com.au/

• Selecting appropriate mining techniques are just a small

part of it!
11 meters of core at 3.6 grams per
metric ton

• analysis of requirements to startup mine:

• capital, transportation, labor, cost of processing, etc.
• complying with governmental regulations.
• mitigating environmental damage.
• strategies for making profitability in a changing
marketplace.
 You MUST know
what you have, to
make a plan
3. Mining: extract ore from ground
• Types of Mining:
• Surface Mining: Scoop ore off surface of earth.
• cheap.
• safe for miners.
• large environmental destruction.

• Underground Mining: Use of adits and shafts to reach deeply

buried ores.
• expensive.
• hazardous for miners.
• usually less environmental damage.
Coal mine
Gradual
COAL types
shift toward surface mining
Surface mining: two types
open pit mining:
• funnel shaped hole in
ground, with ramp spiraling
down along sides, allows
moderately deep ore to be
Initial mining for zinc at Franklin
reached. and Ogdensburg, New Jersey.
 • Strip-mining: Blast, scoop off rock
Strip mining. overburden, and then scoop out ore
material. Fairly shallow.
• Economics of strip mining depend on
stripping ratio
• Large land area can be involved, especially
for coal and bauxite.

Example: Alcoa’s
Sierra de Bahoruco
Aluminum mining
in D.R. Southern
Peninsula until 1985
Economics of strip mining depend on stripping ratio

stripping ratio = h1/h2

Versus Underground Mining
 When do we mine underground?
 The ore deposit is deep
 Ore body is steep
 Grade is high enough to exceed costs
Underground mining
A variety of configurations, depending upon conditions

Mining terms
Modern safety standards mean that most modern mines, at least those
constructed by large corporations, are engineering marvels. They are
expensive, and are not constructed unless the commodity sought is known
to be present in profitable quantities and is recoverable.
4. Beneficiation

Means of separation of ore mineral from waste

material (AKA gangue minerals)

A great deal of bench testing using planned

treatment processes avoids nasty surprises later

e.g. Barrick’s huge Acanthite reserves in tailings at

Veladero
4. Beneficiation: separate ore minerals from
other mined rock. Cont’d
• Ore rarely contains enough ore minerals to be refined as is.
• milling is required to separate pure ore minerals from useless
"gangue" (pronounced "gang") minerals.
• Milling techniques:
• Grinding ore to fine powder.
• Separation using flotation techniques: powdered ores mixed
with water and organic compounds "collectors" and "frothers".
The collectors are heteropolar molecules with one end that
adheres to ore minerals, the other that adheres to frother-coated
air bubbles. Air forced through water then produces a foamy
layer of concentrated ore mineral.
• environmental problems associated with mill tailings are similar
to mine tailings.
Loading Ore in the Pit
Crushing
 Grinding

Ball Mill
Floatation
Dewatering and Impoundment
 5. Refining
Smelting
Removes the metal from the ore mineral by
heating the ore with a flux, reducing the
metal ion to its elemental form
Heap Leaching
Removes metal from the ore by reaction with
a solution, often using cyanide CN- ion
Smelt refining:
extract pure
commodity from ore
mineral.
• Iron, from an iron oxide
(Fe2O3, hematite) rich ore (such
as a banded-iron formation,
which also contains quartz).
• coke (carbon from coal), ore,
air, and limestone mixed in blast
furnace.

•Very expensive energy costs

smelting reactions:
coke + oxygen = carbon monoxide.

hematite + carbon monoxide = iron (melt) + carbon dioxide.

quartz + calcium carbonate = calcium silicate (melt) + carbon

dioxide.

• iron melt and silicate melt are immiscible, with the iron being
denser.
• The iron is drawn off from the bottom of the furnace ("pig
iron").
• The silicate melt is drawn off the top ("slag").
Ex. 1: Iron reactions in Smelter
 Above 800 °C, CO is the predominant
carbon combustion product:
O2 + 2 C → 2 CO

 3CO + Fe2O3 (hematite) 2 Fe + 3CO2 (g)

 4CO + Fe3O4 (magnetite) 3Fe + 4CO2 (g)

Smelt Refining Example 2: Aluminum from Bauxite
Mix bauxite with water, Ca(OH)2 & NaOH at high temperature,
dissolving the aluminum (e.g. the ion Al(OH)4-). Gangue left behind.
• Cool solution, Al(OH)3 gibbsite precipitates out.
• Al(OH)3 is oxidized in a furnace to alumina Al2O3
• Alumina is dissolved in molten Na3AlF6 flux, (manufactured
Cryolite from Fluorite CaF2) in a container ("pot") made of an
electrically-conducting material (typically carbon).
• Carbon anodes are suspended in the solution, and high-amperage,
low voltage electricity is used to drive the reaction:
• alumina + carbon = aluminum (melt) + carbon monoxide.
• Al2O3 + 3C  2Al +3CO
• The aluminum melt is immiscible
in the Cryolite melt, and collects
at the bottom of the pot.
Smelt Refining Example 3: a sulfide
Copper, from copper-iron sulfide (CuFeS2, chalcopyrite).

• the chalcopyrite is melted in a furnace with a fluxing

agent that facilitates melting.
• air is added to produce Chalcocite. The process also
separates the iron

Chalcocite + oxygen copper + sulfur dioxide

Cu2S(l) +O2(g)  2Cu(l) + SO2 (g)
• The resulting copper is very impure, and needs to be
further purified in an anode furnace (see above for Al)
•Chalcopyrite occurs with pyrite FeS2, a low-value ore
and a source of acid pollution from slag.
Smelting (continued):
Environmental problems particular to smelting.

• Production of huge piles of slag.

• Emission of CO2, a greenhouse gas, into the
atmosphere.
• Pollution associated with the generation of
electricity needed in anode furnaces (especially
aluminum).
• Sulfur dioxide emissions from the refining of
sulfide ores are a major source of air pollution. The
sulfur dioxide combines with water to produce sulfuric
acid, H2SO4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_Acid#Wet_sulfuric_acid_process_.28WSA.29
• Release of heavy metals (As, Cd, Hg), present in
trace quantities in sulfide ores, into the environment.
 Problems with Smelting/Roasting
 Air Pollution: SO2 and CO2 and particulate
matter

 Noranda Quebec used to have the highest

single point source of SO2 in the world.
 Presently removed with scrubbers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noranda_%28mining_
company%29
 Sulfide Minerals
 Are sometimes roasted
– Heated in air without melting to transform
sulfides to oxides
– Gives off H2S and SO2

– Then oxides processed like Fe in smelters

 Sulfides cont’d
 Process of roasting and smelting together
creates a matte
– Sulfides are melted into a matte and air is
blown through. S is converted to sulfur
dioxide and Fe to iron oxide, and Cu and Ni
stay in melt
Industries are getting clever at recycling pollutants such as SO2
In this example they are manufacturing sulfuric acid for sale.
Copper Sulfide Smelting Example

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidd_Mine
 Sulfides cont’d
 Electroplating
– Used where rock contains Cu but in too little
amounts to be recovered by classical methods

– Expensive energy costs, but voltage forces

reluctant reactions
 Refining 2: Heap Leaching

 In this process, typically done for Au, the ore is crushed

and piled on a liner.
 Weak solutions of sodium cyanide NaCN (0.05%) percolate
through the material, leaching out the desired metals.
 The solutions are collected and the metals are precipitated
La Herradura owned by Newmont Mining
 Heap Leaching 2
 During the extraction phase, the gold ions
form complex ions with the cyanide:
Au+(s) + 2CN- (aq) --> Au(CN)2- (aq)
 Recuperation of the gold is readily achieved
with an oxidation-reduction reaction:
2Au(CN)2- (aq) +Zn(s) --> Zn(CN)4- (aq) +2Au(s)

DANGEROUS if cyanide is not carefully recovered.

Discussion: Pete Feigley and Coeur D’ Alene
 More Environmental Problems
 Mining operation itself
– Disposal of a large
amount of rock and
waste
– Noise
– Dust
 Subsidence

Newcrest Ltd Cadia Operations, image shows the result of collapse of the Ridgeway
underground mine after removal of stope material.
 Discussion: Lake Baikal Galena PbS and Sphalerite ZnS

Acidified water
 Acid Mine Drainage
–Sulfide deposits react with
groundwater to make acid
–Acidic streams can pick up heavy
elements and transport them.
POISON
 Problems with open pits
 Very large holes
 Pit slopes steep and not stable. Cannot be
maintained
 May fill with water
 Strip coal mines – loss of top soil in past
– Modern fix - Now filled, smoothed out and top
soil added
 More problematic for
Disposal of Waste Rock
open pit than
underground
 Waste rock piles have
steep angle of repose
and thus may not be
stable
 Bingham in its hay
day produced
400,000 tons of waste
rock per DAY. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingham_Canyon_Mine
Tailings pond: problems and solutions
From concentrating usually have high pH
(alkaline = basic)
 So modern Fix:
– At Bingham acid waters mixed with alkaline
tailings water to neutralize
 Different metals have different problems

Tailings Pond: any collection of wastewater separated out during the processing
of mineral ores.
 8. Cost of production.
• Costs that scale with grade of ore. The lower the grade,
• the more ore must be mined.
• the more ore must be shipped to the mill.
• the more ore must be milled.
• the more tailings must be disposed of.

• Fixed costs.
• building a transportation infrastructure.
• refining ore minerals, once it has been milled.
 9. Cost trends in the future
The price of mineral commodities passes through three
stages that depend on changes in costs:
1st: Technical improvements in mining and/or metallurgy
2nd: These improvements become balanced by effects of
decreasing ore grades
3rd: cost rises because improvements in technology can
not keep up with increasing scarcity.
All metals are now in stages 1 (aluminum) or 2 (copper
and iron).
When reserves are too costly to exploit, an “Economic
Barrier” exists and production is stopped.
10. Mine Safety

Heath problems experienced by miners.

• collapse of mine.
• fire (methane, coal dust, etc.).
• asphyxiation (methane, carbon monoxide, etc.).
• pneumoconiosis (from inhaling coal dust).
• asbestosis (from inhaling asbestos fibers).
• silicosis (from inhaling silicate dust).
• heavy metal poisoning (e.g. mercury).
• radiation exposure (in uranium mining).
 Mine Safety

Mine safety: In U.S.,

stringent mining
regulations have lead
to a reduction in
fatalities, both in
terms of total deaths
per year, deaths per
person-hour worked,
and deaths per ton
mined. surface

Surface Mining was always safe; underground mining reached comparable safety in 1980
End of Mineral Resources and
Mining Lecture
Photos courtesy of Lundin