LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

Chapter 17

From Gene to Protein

Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

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Overview: The Flow of Genetic Information
• Gene expression, the process by which DNA dire
cts protein synthesis, includes two stages: transcri
ption and translation

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Basic Principles of Transcription and Tra
nslation
• RNA is the bridge between genes and the prote
ins for which they code
• Transcription is the synthesis of RNA under th
e direction of DNA
• Transcription produces messenger RNA (mRN
A)
• Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide, u
sing information in the mRNA
• Ribosomes are the sites of translation

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 • In prokaryotes, translation of mRNA can begin bef
ore transcription has finished
• In a eukaryotic cell, the nuclear envelope separate
s transcription from translation
• Eukaryotic RNA transcripts are modified through R
NA processing to yield finished mRNA

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 • A primary transcript is the initial RNA transcri
pt from any gene prior to processing
• The central dogma is the concept that cells are
governed by a cellular chain of command: DN
A RNA protein

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Figure 17.UN01

DNA RNA Protein

Figure 17.3

Nuclear
envelope

TRANSCRIPTION DNA

Pre-mRNA
RNA PROCESSING

mRNA
DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA
Ribosome TRANSLATION Ribosome
TRANSLATION

Polypeptide Polypeptide

(a) Bacterial cell (b) Eukaryotic cell

Figure 17.3a-1

DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA

(a) Bacterial cell

Figure 17.3a-2

DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA
Ribosome
TRANSLATION

Polypeptide

(a) Bacterial cell

Figure 17.3b-1

Nuclear
envelope

DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

Pre-mRNA

(b) Eukaryotic cell

Figure 17.3b-2

Nuclear
envelope

DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

Pre-mRNA
RNA PROCESSING

mRNA

(b) Eukaryotic cell

Figure 17.3b-3

Nuclear
envelope

DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

Pre-mRNA
RNA PROCESSING

mRNA

TRANSLATION Ribosome

Polypeptide

(b) Eukaryotic cell

Codons: Triplets of Nucleotides
• The flow of information from gene to protein is bas
ed on a triplet code: a series of nonoverlapping, t
hree-nucleotide words
• The words of a gene are transcribed into comple
mentary nonoverlaping three-nucleotide words of
mRNA
• These words are then translated into a chain of a
mino acids, forming a polypeptide

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Figure 17.4

DNA
template 3 5 DNA
strand A C C A A A C C G A G T molecule

T G G T T T G G C T C A
3 Gene 1
5
TRANSCRIPTION
Gene 2
U G G U U U G G C U C A
mRNA 5 3
Codon
TRANSLATION

Protein Trp Phe Gly Ser

Gene 3
Amino acid
 • During transcription, one of the two DNA strands,
called the template strand, provides a template fo
r ordering the sequence of complementary nucleo
tides in an RNA transcript
• The template strand is always the same strand for
a given gene
• During translation, the mRNA base triplets, called
codons, are read in the 5 to 3 direction

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 • Codons along an mRNA molecule are read by tra
nslation machinery in the 5 to 3 direction
• Each codon specifies the amino acid (one of 20)
to be placed at the corresponding position along
a polypeptide

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Cracking the Code
• 64 codons
• Redundant
• Codons must be read in the correct reading fra
me (correct groupings) in order for the specified
polypeptide to be produced

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Figure 17.5
Second mRNA base
U C A G
UUU UCU UAU UGU U
Phe Tyr Cys
UUC UCC UAC UGC C
U Ser
UUA UCA UAA Stop UGA Stop A
Leu

Third mRNA base (3 end of codon)

First mRNA base (5 end of codon) UUG UCG UAG Stop UGG Trp G

CUU CCU CAU CGU U

His
CUC CCC CAC CGC C
C Leu Pro Arg
CUA CCA CAA CGA A
Gln
CUG CCG CAG CGG G

AUU ACU AAU AGU U

Asn Ser
AUC Ile ACC AAC AGC C
A Thr
AUA ACA AAA AGA A
Lys Arg
Met or
AUG start
ACG AAG AGG G

GUU GCU GAU GGU U

Asp
GUC GCC GAC GGC C
G Val Ala Gly
GUA GCA GAA GGA A
Glu
GUG GCG GAG GGG G
Concept 17.2: Transcription is the DNA-dire
cted synthesis of RNA: a closer look
• Transcription is the first stage of gene expression

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Molecular Components of Transcription
• RNA synthesis is catalyzed by RNA polymerase,
which pries the DNA strands apart and hooks toge
ther the RNA nucleotides

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 • The DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attac
hes is called the promoter; in bacteria, the seque
nce signaling the end of transcription is called the
terminator
• The stretch of DNA that is transcribed is called a tr
anscription unit

Animation: Transcription
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Figure 17.7-1 Promoter Transcription unit

5 3
3 5
DNA
Start point
RNA polymerase
Figure 17.7-2 Promoter Transcription unit

5 3
3 5
DNA
Start point
RNA polymerase 1 Initiation

Nontemplate strand of DNA

5 3
3 5
Template strand of DNA
RNA
Unwound
transcript
DNA
Figure 17.7-3 Promoter Transcription unit

5 3
3 5
DNA
Start point
RNA polymerase 1 Initiation

Nontemplate strand of DNA

5 3
3 5
Template strand of DNA
RNA
Unwound
transcript
DNA
2 Elongation

Rewound
DNA
5 3
3 3 5
5
RNA
transcript
Figure 17.7-4 Promoter Transcription unit

5 3
3 5
DNA
Start point
RNA polymerase 1 Initiation

Nontemplate strand of DNA

5 3
3 5
Template strand of DNA
RNA
Unwound
transcript
DNA
2 Elongation

Rewound
DNA
5 3
3 3 5
5
RNA
transcript 3 Termination

5 3
3 5
5 3
Completed RNA transcript

Direction of transcription (“downstream”)

Synthesis of an RNA Transcript
• The three stages of transcription
– Initiation
– Elongation
– Termination

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RNA Polymerase Binding and Initiation of
Transcription
• Promoters signal the transcriptional start point an
d usually extend several dozen nucleotide pairs up
stream of the start point
• Transcription factors mediate the binding of RN
A polymerase and the initiation of transcription
• The completed assembly of transcription factors a
nd RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter is calle
d a transcription initiation complex
• A promoter called a TATA box is crucial in formin
g the initiation complex in eukaryotes
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Figure 17.8
1 A eukaryotic promoter
Promoter
Nontemplate strand
DNA
5 T A T A A AA 3
3 A T AT T T T 5
TATA box Template strand
Start point
2 Several transcription
Transcription factors bind to DNA
factors

5 3
3 5

3 Transcription initiation
complex forms

RNA polymerase II
Transcription factors

5 3
3
3 5 5

RNA transcript

Transcription initiation complex

Figure 17.9
Nontemplate
strand of DNA
RNA nucleotides
RNA
polymerase

A T C C A A
3 5
C
3 end

C A U C C A

5 3
T A G G T T

5 Direction of transcription
Template
strand of DNA
Newly made
RNA
Alteration of mRNA Ends
• Each end of a pre-mRNA molecule is modified i
n a particular way
– The 5 end receives a modified nucleotide 5 ca
p
– The 3 end gets a poly-A tail
• These modifications share several functions
– They seem to facilitate the export of mRNA
– They protect mRNA from hydrolytic enzymes
– They help ribosomes attach to the 5 end

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Figure 17.10

Protein-coding Polyadenylation
segment signal
5 3
G P P P AAUAAA AAA … AAA

Start Stop
5 Cap 5 UTR 3 UTR Poly-A tail
codon codon
Split Genes and RNA Splicing
• Most eukaryotic genes and their RNA transcripts h
ave long noncoding stretches of nucleotides that li
e between coding regions
• These noncoding regions are called intervening se
quences, or introns
• The other regions are called exons because they
are eventually expressed, usually translated into a
mino acid sequences
• RNA splicing removes introns and joins exons, cr
eating an mRNA molecule with a continuous codin
g sequence

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Figure 17.11

5 Exon Intron Exon Intron Exon 3

Pre-mRNA 5 Cap Poly-A tail
Codon 130 31104 105
numbers
146
Introns cut out and
exons spliced together

mRNA 5 Cap Poly-A tail

1146
5 UTR 3 UTR
Coding
segment
 • In some cases, RNA splicing is carried out by spl
iceosomes
• Spliceosomes consist of a variety of proteins an
d several small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRN
Ps) that recognize the splice sites

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Figure 17.12-1
RNA transcript (pre-mRNA)
5
Exon 1 Intron Exon 2
Protein
Other
snRNA proteins
snRNPs
Figure 17.12-2
RNA transcript (pre-mRNA)
5
Exon 1 Intron Exon 2
Protein
Other
snRNA proteins
snRNPs

Spliceosome

5
Figure 17.12-3
RNA transcript (pre-mRNA)
5
Exon 1 Intron Exon 2
Protein
Other
snRNA proteins
snRNPs

Spliceosome

5

Spliceosome
components
Cut-out
mRNA intron
5
Exon 1 Exon 2
Ribozymes
• Ribozymes are catalytic RNA molecules that fun
ction as enzymes and can splice RNA
• The discovery of ribozymes rendered obsolete th
e belief that all biological catalysts were proteins

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Concept 17.4: Translation is the RNA-dire
cted synthesis of a polypeptide: a closer loo
k
• Genetic information flows from mRNA to protein t
hrough the process of translation

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Molecular Components of Translation
• transfer RNA (tRNA)

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Figure 17.14

Amino
Polypeptide acids

tRNA with
amino acid
attached
Ribosome

tRNA
C
G
Anticodon
U G G U U U G G C

5 Codons 3
mRNA
The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA
• Molecules of tRNA are not identical
– Each carries a specific amino acid on one end
– Each has an anticodon on the other end; the anti
codon base-pairs with a complementary codon on
mRNA

BioFlix: Protein Synthesis

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Figure 17.15

3
Amino acid
attachment
site 5
Amino acid
attachment
5 site
3

Hydrogen
bonds
Hydrogen
bonds

A A G
3 5
Anticodon Anticodon
Anticodon
(c) Symbol used
(a) Two-dimensional structure (b) Three-dimensional structure in this book
Figure 17.15a
3
Amino acid
attachment
site 5

Hydrogen
bonds

Anticodon

(a) Two-dimensional structure

Figure 17.15b
Amino acid
attachment
5 site
3

Hydrogen
bonds

A A G
3 5
Anticodon Anticodon
(c) Symbol used
(b) Three-dimensional structure in this book
Ribosomes
• The two ribosomal subunits (large and small) are
made of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

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Figure 17.17
Growing
polypeptide Exit tunnel
tRNA
molecules

Large
subunit
E P
A

Small
subunit

5
mRNA 3
(a) Computer model of functioning ribosome
Growing polypeptide
P site (Peptidyl-tRNA Amino end
Exit tunnel Next amino
binding site)
acid to be
added to
A site (Aminoacyl- polypeptide
tRNA binding site) chain
E site
(Exit site)
E tRNA
E P A Large
mRNA 3
subunit
mRNA
binding site Small 5 Codons
subunit
(b) Schematic model showing binding sites (c) Schematic model with mRNA and tRNA
Figure 17.17a

Growing
polypeptide Exit tunnel
tRNA
molecules

Large
subunit
E P
A

Small
subunit

5
mRNA 3
(a) Computer model of functioning ribosome
Figure 17.17b

P site (Peptidyl-tRNA
Exit tunnel
binding site)

A site (Aminoacyl-
tRNA binding site)
E site
(Exit site)
E P A Large
subunit

mRNA
binding site Small
subunit
(b) Schematic model showing binding sites
Figure 17.17c

Growing polypeptide
Amino end
Next amino
acid to be
added to
polypeptide
chain

E tRNA
mRNA 3

5 Codons

(c) Schematic model with mRNA and tRNA

 • A ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA
– The P site holds the tRNA that carries the growin
g polypeptide chain
– The A site holds the tRNA that carries the next a
mino acid to be added to the chain
– The E site is the exit site, where discharged tRNA
s leave the ribosome

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Building a Polypeptide
• The three stages of translation
– Initiation
– Elongation
– Termination

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Figure 17.18

Large
ribosomal
subunit
3 U A C 5 P site
5 A U G 3
Pi
Initiator 
tRNA GTP GDP
E A
mRNA
5 5
3 3
Start codon
Small
mRNA binding site ribosomal Translation initiation complex
subunit
Figure 17.19-1
Amino end of
polypeptide

E
mRNA 3
P A
site site
5
Figure 17.19-2
Amino end of
polypeptide

E
mRNA 3
P A
site site GTP
5
GDP  P i

P A
Figure 17.19-3
Amino end of
polypeptide

E
mRNA 3
P A
site site GTP
5
GDP  P i

P A

P A
Figure 17.19-4
Amino end of
polypeptide

E
mRNA 3
Ribosome ready for P A
site site GTP
next aminoacyl tRNA 5
GDP  P i

E E

P A P A

GDP  P i

GTP

P A
Figure 17.20-1

Release
factor

3

5

Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA)
Figure 17.20-2

Release
factor Free
polypeptide

3 3
2 GTP
5 5
2 GDP  2 P i
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA)
Figure 17.20-3

Release
factor Free
polypeptide

5
3 3
2 GTP 3
5 5
2 GDP  2 P i
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA)
Figure 17.21
Completed
Growing polypeptide
polypeptides

Incoming
ribosomal
subunits

Start of
mRNA End of
(5 end) mRNA
(a) (3 end)

Ribosomes

mRNA

(b)
0.1 m
Figure 17.21a

Ribosomes

mRNA

0.1 m
Concept 17.5: Mutations of one or a few nucl
eotides can affect protein structure and funct
ion
• Mutations are changes in the genetic material o
f a cell or virus
• Point mutations are chemical changes in just o
ne base pair of a gene
• The change of a single nucleotide in a DNA tem
plate strand can lead to the production of an abn
ormal protein

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Figure 17.23

Wild-type hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin

Wild-type hemoglobin DNA Mutant hemoglobin DNA
3 C T T 5 3 C A T 5
5 G A A 3 5 G T A 3

mRNA mRNA
5 G A A 3 5 G U A 3

Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin

Glu Val
Types of Small-Scale Mutations
• Point mutations within a gene can be divided into t
wo general categories
– Nucleotide-pair substitutions
– One or more nucleotide-pair insertions or deletion
s

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Substitutions
• A nucleotide-pair substitution replaces one n
ucleotide and its partner with another pair of nuc
leotides
• Silent mutations have no effect on the amino a
cid produced by a codon because of redundanc
y in the genetic code
• Missense mutations still code for an amino aci
d, but not the correct amino acid
• Nonsense mutations change an amino acid co
don into a stop codon, nearly always leading to
a nonfunctional protein
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Figure 17.24
Wild type
DNA template strand 3 T A C T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G C T A A 3 
mRNA5 A U G A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Amino end Carboxyl end

(a) Nucleotide-pair substitution (b) Nucleotide-pair insertion or deletion

A instead of G Extra A
3 T A C T T C A A A C C A A T T 5 3 T A C A T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G T T A A 3 5 A T G T A A G T T T G G C T A A 3
U instead of C Extra U
5 A U G A A G U U U G G U U A A 3 5 A U G U A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Met Lys Phe Gly Met Stop
Stop
Silent (no effect on amino acid sequence) Frameshift causing immediate nonsense
(1 nucleotide-pair insertion)
T instead of C A missing
3 T A C T T C A A A T C G A T T 5 3 T A C T T C A A C C G A T T 5T
5 A T G A A G T T T A G C T A A 3 
5 A T G A A G T T G G C T A A 3A
A instead of G U missing
5 A U G A A G U U U A G C U A A 3 5 A U G A A G U U G G C U A A 3
Met Lys Phe Ser Stop Met Lys Leu Ala

Missense Frameshift causing extensive missense

(1 nucleotide-pair deletion)

A instead of T T T C missing
3 T A C A T C A A A C C G A T T 5 3 T A C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G T A G T T T G G C T A A 3 5 A T G T T T G G C T A A 3
U instead of A A A G missing
5 A U G U A G U U U G G C U A A 3  A A
5 A U G U U U G G C U A A 3U
Met Stop Met Phe Gly Stop
Nonsense No frameshift, but one amino acid missing
(3 nucleotide-pair deletion)
Figure 17.24a

Wild type
DNA template strand 3 T A C T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G C T A A 3

mRNA5 A U G A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Amino end Carboxyl end

(a) Nucleotide-pair substitution: silent

A instead of G
3 T A C T T C A A A C C A A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G T T A A 3
U instead of C
5 A U G A A G U U U G G U U A A 3
Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Figure 17.24b

Wild type
DNA template strand 3 T A C T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G C T A A 3

mRNA5 A U G A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Amino end Carboxyl end

(a) Nucleotide-pair substitution: missense

T instead of C
3 T A C T T C A A A T C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T A G C T A A 3
A instead of G
5 A U G A A G U U U A G C U A A 3
Met Lys Phe Ser Stop
Figure 17.24c

Wild type
DNA template strand 3 T A C T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G C T A A 3

mRNA5 A U G A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Amino end Carboxyl end

(a) Nucleotide-pair substitution: nonsense

A instead of T T instead of C
3 T A C A T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G T A G T T T G G C T A A 3
U instead of A
5 A U G U A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Met Stop
Insertions and Deletions
• Insertions and deletions are additions or losses
of nucleotide pairs in a gene
• These mutations have a disastrous effect on the re
sulting protein more often than substitutions do
• Insertion or deletion of nucleotides may alter the r
eading frame, producing a frameshift mutation

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Figure 17.24d

Wild type
DNA template strand 3 T A C T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G C T A A 3

mRNA5 A U G A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Amino end Carboxyl end

(b) Nucleotide-pair insertion or deletion: frameshift causing

immediate nonsense
Extra A
3 T A C A T T C A A A C G G A T T 5
5 A T G T A A G T T T G G C T A A 3
Extra U
5 A U G U A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Met Stop
1 nucleotide-pair insertion
Figure 17.24e

Wild type
DNA template strand 3 T A C T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G C T A A 3

mRNA5 A U G A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Amino end Carboxyl end

(b) Nucleotide-pair insertion or deletion: frameshift causing

extensive missense
A missing
3 T A C T T C A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T G G C T A A 3

U missing
5 A U G A A G U U G G C U A A 3
Met Lys Leu Ala

1 nucleotide-pair deletion
Figure 17.24f

Wild type
DNA template strand 3 T A C T T C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G A A G T T T G G C T A A 3

mRNA5 A U G A A G U U U G G C U A A 3
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Stop
Amino end Carboxyl end

(b) Nucleotide-pair insertion or deletion: no frameshift, but one

amino acid missing
T T C missing
3 T A C A A A C C G A T T 5
5 A T G T T T G G C T A A 3

A A G missing
5 A U G U U U G G C U A A 3
Met Phe Gly
Stop
3 nucleotide-pair deletion
Mutagens
• Spontaneous mutations can occur during DNA rep
lication, recombination, or repair
• Mutagens are physical or chemical agents that ca
n cause mutations

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