SYNTAX

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 WHAT IS SYNTAX?

Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by

which sentences are constructed in particular languages.

Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its

goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed

as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of

the language under analysis. (Chomsky, 2002)

Syntax may be defined as:
- Determining the relevant component parts of a sentence;
- Describing these parts gramatically.

The component parts of a sentence are called constituents. In

other words, syntax involves two closely related tasks of:
1. Breaking down the sentence into its constituents.
2. Assigning some grammatical label to each constituent,
stating what type of constituent it is, and what grammatical
function it has.
Constituent are like building blocks which pattern in certain ways
to form larger and larger units, the largest unit being the
sentence. Each constituent (except the smallest) can be broken
down into its component parts. The purpose of doing syntax is to
discover the ways in which constituents combine to form the
structure of sentences.

The following diagram is the hierarchy of sentence constituents

from the smallest part:

Morpheme Word Phrase Clause Sentence

 WORD
A single unit of language that has meaning and can be spoken or
written

Words can be distributed into some classes or we usually know it

as parts of speech
 THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun,

pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction,
and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word
functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the
sentence. An individual word can function as more than one part
of speech when used in different circumstances.
 NOUN
A word that is the name of person, a place, or thing.

Example:
Andi, Pandeglang, book.

1. Andi is a student (singular )

2. They are students (plural )
3. I live in Pandeglang.
4. I recommend this book.
 PRONOUN

A word that is used in place of a noun or noun phrase.

Example:
her, she, him, they.

1. Mary’s husband love her.

2. She met him two years ago.
3. Look at him!
4. They are friends.
 VERB

A word which is used in describing an action,

experience or state.

Example:
Write, ride, run, be.

1. He wrote a poem.
2. He runs quickly.
3. We are students.
 4. ADJECTIVE

A word that gives more information pronoun

(noun/ pronoun modifiers.)
Example:
Kind, better, best, big.

1. He is a kind man.
2. We all want better life!
3. That’s the best thing about her.
4. That is the big house.
 5. ADVERB

A word that describes or adds to the meaning of verbs,

adjective, another adverbs, or a whole sentence.

Example:
Sensibly, carefully.

1. Please talk sensibly!

2. He walk across the bridge carefully.
 PREPOSITION

A word used to link nouns, pronoun, or phrase to the

other word within sentence

Example:
For, of, in.
1 . A plan for life.
2. Bring me two bottles of tea!
3. Put it in the box!
 CONJUNCTION

A word that connect sentences, phrases, or

clauses.

Example:
And, so, but.

1. Girl and boy.

2. My car broke down, so I went by bus.
3. I like it, but I can't afford it.
 INTERJECTION
A word that short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a
sentence.

Example:
oh!, ouch!, hi!, well.

1. Ouch! That hurts!

2. Hi! How are you?
3. Well, I don'tknow
 SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES

Lexical categories: Examples:

• Noun (N) • table, policy
• Verb (V) • melt, remain
• Adjective (A) • good, intelligent
• Preposition (P) • to, near
• Adverb (Adv) • slowly, now
 SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES

Non-lexical categories Examples

• Determiner (Det) • the, this
• Degree word (Deg) • very, more
• Qualifier (Qual) • always, perhaps
• Auxiliary (Aux) • will, can
• Conjunction (Con) • and, or
 Indicate the category of each word in the following
sentences

a. The glass suddenly broke.

Det / N / Adv/ V

b. The peaches never appear quite ripe.

Det / N / Qual/ V/ Deg / A

Alivia will play the trumpet and the drums

in the orchestra.
N / Aux / V / Det / N / Conj / Det / N / P / Det / N/
N\
The Main Structure Rules

1. S →NP (Aux) VP
2. NP→ (Det) (AP) N (PP)
3. VP→ V (NP) (PP) (Adv)
4. PP → P NP
5. AP→ A (PP)
 PHRASE
A phrase is a syntactic structure that contains one or more words but does
not contain both a subject and a verb (so it is not a sentence).

“A phrase is a small group of words that form a meaningful unit within

a clause.”

-Oxford Dictionary

“In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single

word) that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a single
unit within agrammatical hierarchy.”

-Osborne, Timothy, Michael Putnam, and Thomas Gross (2011)

 Head and Modifier
In every sentence, there will be ‘a head’. Yet somestimes a head may
have more ‘modifier’ and may have no ‘modifier’.
It is called as Phrase when it has ‘head’ and ‘modifier’.

The head of a phrase is the word that determiners the syntactic type of
that phrase.

A modifier is an optional element in phrase structure.

Example: the large house barked loudly

modifier head head modifier

 1. Noun Phrases

Noun phrases always contain a noun or a pronoun as the head.

Noun phrases may be single nouns or pronouns or they may
begin with a determiner. Determiners include:

Articles (e.g., a, an, the)

Possessives (e.g., my, his, man's, Sam's)
Demonstratives (e.g., that, this, those)
Quantifiers (e.g., every, another, some)
Wh-words (e.g., what, whatever, which)
Example:

The boy was very small.

The girl read some books.

 Noun Phrase NP = (det) (adj) N (PP)

• N books, cheese, happiness

• Det + N all kids, the park, a house, any computer
• Det + Adj + N a red house, some good pizza
• Adj +N quite place, rowdy crowd
• N + PP dog in the park

Prepositional Phrase
PP + NP in the park
Example :

The boy was very small

The girl read some books.

 2. Verb Phrases

Verb phrases serve as the main structure of the

predicate and include a main verb and any auxiliary
verb forms and modifiers that might be attached to it.
(e.g., I should have told you about the problem.) (The
verb forms infinitives, participles and gerunds can also
serve as phrases.)
Verb Phrase VP = V(Adv) (NP) (NP) (PP)

• V runs, sleeps, sits

• V+ Adv drives quickly, eat slowly, park carefully
• V + NP eats the cake
• V + NP+ NP give dog some food
• V + NP +PP sets fruit on plates
 3. Adjective Phrases

Adjective phrases have adjectives as the head of the phrase,

although there may be one or more modifiers attached to it.

Example : He has really unsafe habits.

I like very dark chocolate.

 4. Adverb Phrases

Adverb phrases have adverbs as the head of the phrase. There

might be additional adverbs or adjectives attached to the head
adverb in the phrase.

(e.g., The children argued all too loudly.)

Adv P Loudly, unfortunatelly

 5. Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases begin with a preposition and the

preposition is considered the head of the phrase. (e.g., She did
really well on the final.) [Some argue that the object of the
proposition, the noun to which the preposition refers, should be
considered the head of the phrase, but we will consider the
preposition the head].

PP = P NP in the yard
 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES
AND TREE DIAGRAM

• NP (Det) N (PP)
• PP P NP
The bus in the yard
The bus (NP)
NP

Det N
Det N PP

The bus P NP

Det N

The bus in the yard

 VERB PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES
AND TREE DIAGRAM

• VP V (NP) (PP)
• S NP (Aux) VP

took the money took the money from the bank

(VP) (VP)

V NP V NP PP
Det N Det N P
P NP

took the money Det N

took the money from the bank

Adverbial phrase
 CLAUSES

o Noun Clause: Clause that is functioned like a noun

He said that he was tired.

o Adjective Clause: Clause that is functioned like an

adjective
The girl who is standing under the tree is my sister.

o Adverbial Clause: Clause that is functioned like an adverb

When he arrived we were all sleeping
WORD, PHRASE AND CLAUSE

I always remember Jhon.

word
I always remember hiskindness.
phrase
I always remember what Jhon has done.
clause
SENTENCE
Simple Sentence

 A simple sentence contains a subject and verb.

 It expresses a single complete thought.
 A simple sentence is a single independent clause.

I live in Palangkaraya

Subject Verb
example

One
subject

I love you.
One
verb

Independent clause: only one subject and one verb

Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains two independent
clauses that are joined together.

She works in the city, but she lives in the suburbs.

Independent Independent
Clause Clause
example

Independent
clause

I love you, and you love me.

Independent
clause

Two independent clauses joined together

Complex
A complex sentence contains one independent
and one dependent clause.

Because she was sick, she stayed home.

Dependent Independent
Clause Clause
example

Dependent clause

Because you love me, I love

you.
Independent clause

A dependent clause joined to an independent clause.

(Thed ependent clause needs the rest of the sentence for
support.)
Compound complex

Contains 3 or more clauses (of which at least two

are independent and one is dependent).

I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't

like cats because they make her sneeze.

Dependent
Clause
 Grammatical Function

Grammatical function is the syntactic role

played by a word or phrase in the context of
a particular clause or sentence. Sometimes
called simply function.
 Basic Word Order
SVO
Subject, Verb, Object

example : He saw me.

 SUBJECT
Subject are frequently occupied by Nouns or if they
are in phrases, Structure of Modification would
place Noun as HEAD of structure

Example : Money talks.

( Noun)

Parts of speech other than nouns might also become the

subject of sentence.
Example : Handsome is an idol of all men
( Adjective)
 Predicate
• The element of predicate always consist of a
verb
Example: Money talks
The weather has changed

• Predicate may also be in the form of the

structure of modification where a verb as a head.
Example : The sun sets in the west.
The mall usually comes early in the morning.
 Predicate

• A verb becoming a predicate can be

followed by objects.
Example : The clerk sold me the shirt .

• A verb becoming a predicate can be also

in the form of a structure of coordination.
Example : We walked and talked .
People either like this place or hate it.
 Verbal Element

linking verbs intransitive verbs transitive verbs

take a subject take NO object take an object

complement

mono-transitive verbs di-transitive verbs

take ONE object: a direct take TWO objects: an
object indirect object + direct
object

cannot be passive can be passive

a) Linking Verb
Linking verb function to relate
SUBJECT and COMPLEMENT .Thus,
linking verb are always followed by a
complement.
Example : The weather turned cold .
The music sounded loud.
(b) Intransitive verb
Intransitive verb are the verbs not
followed by a complement. By this reason
these verb can not form the passive voice.
• Example : The machine is running.
The rain stopped.
The fire alarm sounded.
(c) Transitive verb
Transitive verb are always followed by
complement ( in the form of active voice)
and these verbs can be passive.
Example : The car turned the corner.
The musician blew the trumpet.
John told a story
 Direct Object
• The direct object is the receiver of the action mentioned
in the sentence.
John hit the ball. (Direct object: the ball)

• Be careful to distinguish between a direct object and an

object complement.
They named the boy Christopher.

• In this sentence ‘boy’ is the direct object and

‘Christopher’ is the object complement.
• The object complement is a word that describes the
object.
 Indirect Object
• The indirect object identifies the person/thing for
whom/what the action of the verb is performed.
• The indirect object is usually a person or thing.

• Study the examples given below:

My mother bought me a necklace. (Indirect object
– me; direct object – necklace)
John told Peter a story. (Indirect object – Peter;
direct object – story)
 Conclusion

Syntax

Study of:
• Gramatical relations between word and other
unit
• Determining the relevant component parts of a
sentence;
• Describing these parts gramatically.
THANK YOU