Module 18

Special Directories and Files

Exam Objective
5.4 Special Directories and Files

Objective Description
Special directories and files on a Linux system including special
permissions.
Special Permissions
Setuid Permissions
● This permission is set on system utilities so they can be run by normal users, but executed
with the permissions of root.

● Gives access to system files that a normal user doesn’t have access to.

● For example, the user sysadmin attempts to view the contents of the /etc/shadow file:

sysadmin@localhost:~$ more /etc/shadow

/etc/shadow: Permission denied

● How is a regular user able to modify the /etc/shadow file when executing the passwd
command?

● The passwd command has the special setuid permission:

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ls -l /usr/bin/passwd

-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 31768 Jan 28 2010 /usr/bin/passwd

Setuid Permissions
● The setuid permission is represented by an s character in user execute permissions.

-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 31768 Jan 28 2010 /usr/bin/passwd

● An uppercase S means that only the setuid is set and not the user execute permission.
-rwSr-xr-x 1 root root 31768 Jan 28 2010 /usr/bin/passwd
Setuid Permissions
● Special permissions can be set with the chmod command, using either the symbolic and octal
methods.

● To add the setuid permission symbolically, run:

chmod u+s file

● To add the setuid permission numerically, add 4000 to the file's existing permissions (assume
the file below originally had 775 for its permission):
chmod 4775 file

● To remove the setuid permission symbolically, run: chmod u-s file

● To remove the setuid permission numerically, subtract 4000 from the file's existing
permissions: chmod 0775 file
Setgid Permissions On a File
● The setgid permission is similar to setuid, but for group permissions.

● There are two types of setgid permissions; setgid on files and setgid on directories

● Setgid on a file allows user to run executable binary file by providing temporary group access.
○ Represented by s in group permissions: -rwxr-sr-x
○ Consider the usr/bin/wall command file group ownership:
-rwxr-sr-x. 1 root tty 10996 Jul 19 2011 /usr/bin/wall

○ This executable file is owned by the tty group, when a user executes this command
they will be able to access files that are group owned by the tty group.
Setgid Permissions On a Directory
● Setgid on a directory causes files created in the directory to automatically be owned by the
group that owns the directory.

● Remember: Normally, new files are group owned by the primary group of the user who
created the file.

● If a directory is setgid, any directories created within that directory will inherit the setgid
permission.
● To view permissions information on a directory use ls -ld filename.
● There are two ways the setuid permission can be set:

○ A lowercase s (drwxrwsrwx) means that both setgid and group execute permissions are
set.

○ An uppercase S (drwxrwSr-x)means that only setgid and not group execute permission
is set
Setgid Permissions On a Directory
● To add the setgid permission on a directory symbolically use:

chmod g+s <file|directory>

● To add the setgid permission numerically, add 2000 to the file's existing permissions (assume
the file below originally had 775 for its permission):

chmod 2775 <file|directory>

● To remove the setgid permission symbolically:

chmod g-s <file|directory>

● To remove the setgid permission numerically, subtract 2000 from the file's existing
permissions:
chmod 0775 <file|directory>
Sticky Bit Permission
● The sticky bit permission allows for files in a directory to be shared but only
owner of file or root can delete.

● Without this permission, users would be able to delete any files in this
directory, including those that belong to other users.

● Sticky bit permission is displayed as a t in the execute part of other’s

permissions: drwxrwxrwt
○ Lowercase t means both sticky bit and execute is set.
○ Uppercase T means only sticky bit is set.
Sticky Bit Permission
● To add the sticky bit permission symbolically use:

chmod o+t <directory>

● To add sticky bit permission numerically, add 1000 to the directory’s existing permissions
(assume the directory below originally had 775 for its permission):

chmod 1775 <file|directory>

● To remove sticky bit permission symbolically:

chmod o-t <directory>

● To remove the setgid permission numerically, subtract 1000 from the directory’s existing
permissions:
chmod 0775 <directory>
Links
Hard Links and Symbolic Links
● There are files that reside deep in the file system and have long
pathnames.

/usr/share/doc/superbigsoftwarepackage/data/2013/october/tenth/valuable-
information.txt

● Some files cannot be copied into another directory because other users
update the file.
● You can create a file that will be linked to the one that is "deeply buried"
and place the link in your directory.
Creating Hard Links
● Every file on a partition has a unique identification number called an inode number.

● To display the inode number of a file, use the ls -i command.

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ls -i /tmp/file.txt

215220874 /tmp/file.txt

● Hard links are two file names that point to the same inode. Take the passwd and mypasswd
file names:
File Name Inode
Number
Passwd
123
Mypasswd
123

● You can access the file data using either name because they have the same inode number.
Creating Hard Links
● You can view the link count number of a file by executing the ls -li command:

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ls -li file.*

278772 -rw-rw-r--. 1 sysadmin sysadmin 5 Oct 25 15:42 file.original

● To create a hard link, use the ln command with two arguments:

ln target link_name

● When a hard link is created, the link count will increase by one:

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ln file.original file.hard.1

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ls -li file.*

278772 -rw-rw-r--. 2 sysadmin sysadmin 5 Oct 25 15:53 file.hard.1

278772 -rw-rw-r--. 2 sysadmin sysadmin 5 Oct 25 15:53 file.original
Creating a Symbolic Link
● A symbolic link, also called a soft link, is a file that points to another file. Take the /etc
directory for example:

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ls -l /etc/grub.conf

lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 22 Feb 15 2011 /etc/grub.conf -> ../boot/grub/grub.conf

● In the above example, the file /etc/grub.conf "points to"

the ../boot/grub/grub.conf file.
● To create a symbolic link, use the -s option with the ln command:

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ln -s /etc/passwd mypasswd

sysadmin@localhost:~$ ls -l mypasswd

lrwxrwxrwx. 1 sysadmin sysadmin 11 Oct 31 13:17 mypasswd -> /etc/passwd

Comparing Hard and Symbolic Links
● Although they have the same result, each produces different results and have
advantages and disadvantages.

● Hard Links vs Soft Links Advantages

○ Hard Link Advantage: If there are multiple files with the same hard link, deleting any
four of these files would not result in deleting the actual file contents. With a soft link; if
the original file is removed, then any files linked to it, will fail.

○ Soft Link Advantage: Soft links are easier to see.

○ Soft Link Advantage: Soft links can link to any file because it uses a pathname. Hard
links cannot be created that attempt to cross file systems because each file system has a
unique set of inodes.

○ Soft Link Advantage: Soft links can link to a directory.

File Locations
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
● The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) is a set of guidelines for Linux directories and their
contents.

● The FHS standard categorizes each system directory in a couple of ways:

○ A directory can be categorized as either shareable or not, meaning if the directory could be shared on a
network and used by multiple machines.

○ The directory is put into a category of having either static files (file contents won't change) or variable
files (file contents can change).

Not Shareable Shareable

Variable /var/lock /var/mail

Static /etc /opt

Organization Within the Filesystem
● The following provides a generalized description of the layout of directories as they actually
exist on a typical Linux distribution.

○ User home directory: The /home directory will typically have a directory underneath it for each user
account (i.e., /home/bob).

○ Binary directories: Contain programs that users and admins execute to start processes or applications.

○ Software application directories: Applications in Linux may have their files in multiple directories
spread throughout the the Linux filesystem.

○ Library directories: Libraries are files which contain code that is shared between multiple programs.
Most library file names will end in a file extension of .so, which means shared object.

○ Variable data directories: The /var directory and many of its subdirectories can contain data that will
change frequently (i.e., /var/mail and /var/log).