Chapter 1

Introduction

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Protocols
 The term protocol refers to a well-known set of rules and
formats to be used in order to perform a task. For
example, a task of communicating between processes.
 Parts of a protocol:
 A specification of a sequence of messages
that must be exchanged.
 A specification of the format of the data in the
messages.
 Existence of well-known (standard) protocols enables
the separate components of the distributed systems to
be developed independently in different languages and
on different platforms.
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1.1 Internet Protocols

Web Browser

Network

Web Server
Four elements of a protocol:
A set of rules governing the communication between two peer
entities. It must define the format and the order of messages as
well as actions taken on the transmission and receipt of a
message.
 syntax: format, what is a valid message?
 “GET /~hugue/index.html HTTP/1.1\nHOST:
www.cs.umd.edu\n\n”
 Semantics: what does it mean?
 Get file /~hugue/index.html using the http 1.1 protocol.
 Action:
 read file /~hugue/index.html from the disk, send it
through the socket using the http 1.1 protocol and close
the socket
 Timing: relative order of messages.
 Reply follows the request
Four-Layer Model

Distributed data communications involves

three primary components:
 Applications
 Computers
 Networks
Four corresponding layers
 Application layer
 Transport layer
 Internet layer
 Network Interface
Basic Internet Network Architecture

Host A Host B
Application Layer Application Layer
HTTP Message

Transport Layer Transport Layer

TCP Packet

Router
Internet Layer Internet Layer Internet Layer
IP Datagram IP Datagram

Network Layer Ethernet Network Layer Ethernet Network Layer

Frame Frame

Physical Network Physical Network

 1-1 A BRIEF HISTORY

A network is a group of connected, communicating

devices such as computers and printers. An internet is
two or more networks that can communicate with each
other. The most notable internet is called the internet,
composed of hundreds of thousands of interconnected
networks. Private individuals as well as various
organizations such as government agencies, schools,
research facilities, corporations, and libraries in more
than 100 countries use the Internet.

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 Topics Discussed in the Section
ARPANET
Birth of the Internet
TCP/IP
MILNET
CSNET
NSFNET
ANSNET
The Internet Today
World Wide Web
Growth of the Internet
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 Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA)
 In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented
its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected computers. The idea was
that each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be
attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message processor (IMP).

 By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. A network of Four nodes,

 University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA)
 the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB)
 Stanford Research Institute (SRI)
 the University of Utah
 Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication
 between the hosts.

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 Birth of the internet

 in 1972,Cerf and Kahn devised the idea of

a device called a gateway to
 serve as the intermediary hardware to
transfer data from one network to
another.

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 Transmission Control Protocol/Internetworking

Protocol (TCP/IP )
 transmission control
 protocol (TCP) included concepts such as
encapsulation, the datagram, and the
functions of a gateway. A radical idea was
the transfer of responsibility for error
correction from the IMP to the host
machine

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 Transmission Control
Protocol/Internetworking Protocol (TCP/IP)

 split TCP into two protocols:

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP).
 IP would handle datagram routing
 while TCP would be responsible for higher level
functions such as segmentation, reassembly,
and error detection. The new combination
became known as TCP/IP.

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  MILNET
 CSNET(It featured connections to ARPANET and Telenet, the first
commercial packet data service.)

 NSFNET(a backbone that connected five supercomputer

centers located throughout the United States.)

 ANSNET
Three companies, IBM, Merit, and MCI, filled the void by forming a
nonprofit organization called Advanced Network and Services
(ANS) to build a new, high-speed Internet backbone called ANSNET

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 Figure 1.1 Internet today

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 A Network of Networks
 roughly hierarchical
 Tier-1 ISPs provide national,
international coverage
 Tier-2 ISPs provide regional
coverage
 Tier-3 and lower levels provide
local coverage

 any tier may sell to business

and residential customers

 any ISP may have a

link to any other ISP (not
strictly hierarchical)

Internet
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The Internet Hourglass

Internet
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The Internet at each Hop

Internet
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 Time Line
 The following is a list of important Internet events in chronological order:
 ❑ 1969. Four-node ARPANET established.
 ❑ 1970. ARPA hosts implement NCP.
 ❑ 1973. Development of TCP/IP suite begins.
 ❑ 1977. An internet tested using TCP/IP.
 ❑ 1978. UNIX distributed to academic/research sites.
 ❑ 1981. CSNET established.
 ❑ 1983. TCP/IP becomes the official protocol for ARPANET.
 ❑ 1983. MILNET was born.
 ❑ 1986. NSFNET established.
 ❑ 1990. ARPANET decommissioned and replaced by NSFNET.
 ❑ 1995. NSFNET goes back to being a research network.
 ❑ 1995. Companies known as Internet Service Providers (ISPs) started

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What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a
computer network
protocol:
Hi
TCP connection
Hi request
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

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Programs & Processes

 A program is an executable file.

 A process or task is an instance of a

program that is being executed.

 A single program can generate multiple

processes.

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Client - Server

 A server is a process - not a machine !

 A server waits for a request from a

client.

 A client is a process that sends a

request to an existing server and
(usually) waits for a reply.
Internet
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Client - Server Examples

 Server returns the time-of-day.

 Server returns a document.
 Server prints a file for client.
 Server does a disk read or write.
 Server records a transaction.

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Servers

 Servers are generally more complex (more

interesting).

 Basic types of servers:

 Iterative - server handles one client at a time.
 Concurrent - server handles many clients at a
time.

 We will study the differences later.

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Layering Example: Federal Express
 Letter in envelope, address on outside
 FedX guy adds addressing information, barcode.
 Local office drives to airport and delivers to hub.
 Sent via airplane to nearest city.
 Delivered to right office
 Delivered to right person
Addressed
Letter
Envelope

Letter Addressed
Envelope

Internet
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 Topics Discussed in the Section
Protocols
Standards

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 1-2 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms:

protocols and standards. First, we define protocol,
which is synonymous with “rule.” Then we discuss
standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

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 Standards
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning “by
fact” or “by convention”) and de jure (meaning “by law” or “by regulation”).
❑ De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized
body but have
been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards.
Defacto standards are often established originally by manufacturers that
seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology. Examples
of de facto standards are MS Office and various DVD standards.
❑ De jure. De jure standards are those that have been legislated by
an officially recognized body.

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 1-3 STANDARDS ORGANIZATION

Standards are developed through the cooperation of

standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.

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 Topics Discussed in the Section
Standards Creation Committees
Forums
Regulatory Agencies

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 1-4 INTERNET STANDARDS

An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested

specification that is useful to and adhered to by those
who work with the Internet. It is a formalized
regulation that must be followed. There is a strict
procedure by which a specification attains Internet
standard status. A specification begins as an Internet
draft. An Internet draft is a working document with no
official status and a six-month lifetime.

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 Topics Discussed in the Section
Maturity Levels
Requirement Levels

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 Figure 1.2 Maturity levels of an RFC

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 Figure 1.3 Requirement levels of an RFC

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 Note

RFCs can be found at

http://www.rfc-editor.org.

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 1-5 INTERNET ADMINISTRATION

The Internet, with its roots primarily in the research

domain, has evolved and gained a broader user base
with significant commercial activity. Various groups
that coordinate Internet issues have guided this
growth and development. Appendix G gives the
addresses, e-mail addresses, and telephone numbers
for some of these groups. Figure 1.4 shows the
general organization of Internet administration.

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 Topics Discussed in the Section
Internet Society (ISOC)
Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA)
Internet Corporation for Names and Numbers
(ICANN)
Network Information Center (NIC)

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 Figure 1.4 Internet administration

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 Note

The addresses and websites for Internet

organizations can be found in
Appendix G.

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