HYPOTHESIS

Mrs. C. Sumathi M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Assistant Professor in Education,
PPG College of Education
 Chapter to be completed
• M.Ed. First Year
Unit IV : Defining Research Problem
Unit V : Formulating Hypothesis
Unit VII: Scaling Techniques
• M.Ed. Second Year
Unit VI : Collecting, Analyzing, Interpreting Quantitative data
Unit VII : Collecting, Analyzing, Interpreting Qualitative data
RESEARCH PROBLEM

• A research problem is the situation that causes the

researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill. It is
the demarcation of a problem area within a certain
context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the
WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.
PROBLEM FORMULATION:
SOURCES OF IDEAS
 News Stories
 Personal Experiences
 Review of Research
• Electronic Databases
• Library Indexes
• Web pages
• Internet Libraries – NCJRS, NLM…
 Authorities
• Opinion Leaders
• Funding Sources
Three sources usually contribute to
problem identification.
• Own experience or the experience of others
may be a source of problem supply.
• Review of literature. Review helps to
understand certain findings and notice that a
certain field was not covered. This could lead to
a research problem.
• Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings
in theories could be researched.
Defining Research Problem
• What is research Problem?
• Selecting the problem
• Necessity of defining the problem
• Techniques involved in defining the problem
• Three steps to writing a research problem
• Some samples of research problem
What is a Research Problem ?
• A research problem refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain
a solution for the same.
• A problem statement is a concise description of the
issues that need to be addressed by a problem
solving team and should be presented to them
before they try to solve the problem .
Slide Title

Product A Product B
• Feature 1 • Feature 1
• Feature 2 • Feature 2
• Feature 3 • Feature 3
What is a research problem
Components of a research problem
• There must be an individual or a group which has some
difficulty or the problem
• There must be some objectives to be obtained
• There must be alternative means for obtaining the
objectives one wishes to obtain
• There must be some doubt in the mind of the researcher
with regards to the selection of the alternatives
• There must be some environment to which the difficulty
pertains.
Selecting the problem
• The following points may be observed in selecting a
research problem
• Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided
• The subject selected for the research should be familiar
and feasible so that the related research materials or
sources of research are within one’s reach
• The important of the subject, skills required the cost
involved, the time factor, and data access should be
considered.
• The selection of the problem must be prepared by a
preliminary study
Necessity of Defining the
• A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved
• Defining a research problem is a pre requisite for any
study and is step of the highest importance. It may
facilitate questions like:
– What data are to be collected
– What characteristics of data are relevant and need to
be studied?
– What relations are to be explored?
– What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
Techniques involved in defining the problem
• The technique for the purpose involves the
undertaking of the following steps:
– At the beginning statement of a problem should
be in a general way, then narrow it down and
phrase it in operational terms.
– Understanding the nature of the problem through
discussion
– Surveying the availability literature.
– Developing the ideas through discussion.
Techniques involved in defining the problem
• The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking
of the following steps:
– Technical terms and words or phrases should be
clearly defined
– Basic assumptions related to the research problem
should be clearly stated
– A straight forward statement of the value of the
investigation should be provided
– The scope of the investigation of the problem to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly
Three steps to writing a research problem
• THE FIRST STEP is to write down your problem or the
current state. Don’t worry too much about quality at this
point – simply making a start is significant
• Expand the problem by asking the question:
– Who does it affect/ does not affect
– What does it effect/ does not affect
– How does it effect/ does not affect
– When is it a problem/is not a problem
• Now, rewrite the problem statement based on those
answers.
Three steps to writing a research problem
• Second Step: is the same as the first, but focus on the
desired or future state.
• Third Step : is to combine your revised problem or
current state and your desired future state into a single
statement. This might take a couple of attempts but stick
with it. Finally, review your new problem statement
against the following criteria:
– Focused on only one Problem
– One of two sentence long
– Does not suggest a solution
Statement of the Problem
• Features of a suitable research problem
– You should be able to state the problem clearly
and concisely
– It should be great interest to you
– The problem should be significant
– It should be defined
– You should be able to obtain the required info
– The point of research is to find some answers
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
1. Originates with a question or problem.
2. Requires clear articulation of a goal.
3. Follows a specific plan or procedure.
4. Often divides main problem into sub problems.
5. Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions.
7. Requires collection and interpretation of data.
8. Cyclical (helical) in nature.
FORMULATING AND STATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. Specify the Research Objectives
– A clear statement defining your objectives will help
you develop effective research.
– It will help the decision makers evaluate the research
questions your project should answer as well as the
research methods your project will use to answer
those questions. It’s critical that you have manageable
objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep
your research project focused and relevant.)
FORMULATING AND STATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

2. Review the Environment or Context of the Research

Problem
1.As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with
your team of researchers in defining and testing
environmental variables. This will help you determine
whether the findings of your project will produce enough
information to be worth the cost.
2.In order to do this, you have to identify the
environmental variables that will affect the research
project and begin formulating different methods to
control these variables.
FORMULATING AND STATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
3. Explore the Nature of the Problem
• Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on
the number of variables and the nature of their relationship.
Sometimes the relationship between two variables is directly
related to a problem or questions, and other times the relationship
is entirely unimportant.
• If you understand the nature of the research problem as a
researcher, you will be able to better develop a solution for the
problem.
• To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider
focus groups of consumers, sales people, managers, or
professionals to provide what is sometimes much needed insight
into a particular set of questions or problems.
FORMULATING AND STATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
4. Define the Variable Relationships
• Programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern or
method in the future.
• Studying such a process involves:
• Determining which variables affect the solution to the research
problem.
• Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled and
used for the purposes of the company.
• Determining the functional relationships between the variables and
which variables are critical to the solution of the research problem.
• During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and
consider as many courses of action and variable relationships as
possible.
FORMULATING AND STATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

5. The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action

• There are always consequences to any course of
action used in one or more projects. Anticipating and
communicating the possible outcomes of various
courses of action is a primary responsibility in the
research process.
HYPOTHESES
• MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS
It is the presumptive statement of a proposition or a
intelligent guess, based upon the available evidence,
which a researcher seeks too prove through a study ir
investigation.
It is precisely defined as a tentative or working
proposition, suggested as a solution to a problem.
Definition of hypothesis
• According to George A. Lundberg, “A hypothesis is a
tentative generalization, the validity of which
remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage,
the hypothesis ay be very hunch, guess, imaginative
proposition which becomes the basis for action or
investigation”.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
• Reasonable i.e. logically consistent.
• Agreement with observed facts and established laws.
• Verifiable and testable
• Stated in as Simple and unambiguous terms as
possible.
• Comprehensive enough to accommodate all
observed facts.
• Should be of limited scope
Functions of a good hypothesis
A hypothesis has several function:
• Enhances the objectivity and purpose of a research work
• Provide a research with focus and tells a researcher the
specific scope of a research problem to investigate.
• Help a researcher in prioritizing data collection, hence
providing focus on the study.
• Enable formulation of theory for a researcher to
specifically conclude
• what is true and what is not.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis Types
1. Research Hypothesis
A. Attributive Hypothesis or Descriptive Hypothesis
B. Associative Hypothesis
C. Casual Hypothesis or Explanatory Hypothesis
2. Null Hypothesis
3. Question form Hypothesis
TYPE OF HYPOTHESIS
Two-tailed tests
A Two-tailed test is associated to an alternative
hypotheses for which the sign of the potential difference is
unknown. For example, suppose we wish to compare the
averages of two samples A and B. Before setting up the
experiment and running the test, we expect that if a
difference between the two averages is highlighted, we do not
really know whether A would be higher than B or the
opposite. This drives us to choose a two-tailed test, associated
to the following alternative hypothesis: Ha: average(A) ≠
average(B). Two-tailed tests are by far the most commonly
used tests.
One-tailed tests
A One-tailed test is associated to an alternative
hypothesis for which the sign of the potential difference is
known before running the experiment and the test. In the
example described above, the alternative hypothesis related
to a one-tailed test could be written as follows: average(A) <
average(B) or average(A) > average(B), depending on the
expected direction of the difference.
Hypothesis Testing
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis testing
• https://www.statisticsfromatoz.com/exampl
es-concept-flow-diagram.html
TYPE I AND TYPE II ERROR
• Discussion related to purpose statement
• Research Questions
• Hypothesis
• Objective
t- test prediction
Scale measurement
 CRITERIA FOR GOOD MEASUREMENT
1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Objectivity
4. Sensitivity
5. Practicability
6. Economy
 Reliability

The degree to which the result of a

measurement, calculation, or specification can
be depended on to be accurate.
The quality of being trustworthy or of
performing consistently well.
 Reliability

• Test Retest method ( stability)

• Split half method, Kuder Richardson. Cronbach alpha

(Internal Consistency)

• Parallel forms method (Equivalence and Stability)

 VALIDITY
The quality of being logically or factually sound;
soundness or cogency.
The concept of validity was formulated by Kelly
(1927, p. 14) who stated that a test is valid if it
measures what it claims to measure.
 VALIDITY

• Content validity

• Criterion related validity

• Construct validity

• Face Validity
 Validity
There are four main types of validity:
Face validity is the extent to which a tool appears to
measure what it is supposed to measure.
Construct validity is the extent to which a tool
measures an underlying construct.
Content validity is the extent to which items are
relevant to the content being measured.
Relationship between reliability and validity
If data are valid, they must be reliable. If people
receive very different scores on a test every time
they take it, the test is not likely to predict anything.
However, if a test is reliable, that does not mean that
it is valid. For example, we can measure strength of
grip very reliably, but that does not make it a valid
measure of intelligence or even of mechanical ability.
Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition
for validity.