Econometrics ch2

405: ECONOMETRICS
Chapter # 1: THE NATURE OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS

By: Domodar N. Gujarati
Prof. M. El-Sakka
Dept of Economics: Kuwait University
THE MODERN INTERPRETATION OF REGRESSION
• Regression analysis is concerned with the study of the dependence of

one variable, the dependent variable, on one or more other variables,
the explanatory variables, with a view to estimating and/or predicting
the (population) mean or average value of the former in terms of the
known or fixed (in repeated sampling) values of the latter.
Examples
1. Consider Galton’s law of universal regression. Our concern is
finding out how the average height of sons changes, given the fathers’
height. To see how this can be done, consider Figure 1.1, which is a
scatter diagram, or scattergram.
2. Consider the scattergram in Figure 1.2, which gives the distribution in a
hypothetical population of heights of boys measured at fixed ages.
3. studying the dependence of personal consumption expenditure on after tax
or disposable real personal income. Such an analysis may be helpful in
estimating the marginal propensity to consume (MPC.
4. A monopolist who can fix the price or output (but not both) may want to
find out the response of the demand for a product to changes in price. Such
an experiment may enable the estimation of the price elasticity of the
demand for the product and may help determine the most profitable price.
5. We may want to study the rate of change of money wages in relation to the
unemployment rate. The curve in Figure 1.3 is an example of the Phillips
curve. Such a scattergram may enable the labor economist to predict the
average change in money wages given a certain unemployment rate.
6. The higher the rate of inflation π, the lower the proportion (k) of their
income that people would want to hold in the form of money. Figure 1.4.
• 7. The marketing director of a company may want to know how the demand
for the company’s product is related to, say, advertising expenditure. Such a
study will be of considerable help in finding out the elasticity of demand
with respect to advertising expenditure. This knowledge may be helpful in
determining the “optimum” advertising budget.
• 8. Finally, an agronomist may be interested in studying the dependence of

crop yield, say, of wheat, on temperature, rainfall, amount of sunshine, and
fertilizer. Such a dependence analysis may enable the prediction of the
average crop yield, given information about the explanatory variables.
1.3 STATISTICAL VERSUS DETERMINISTIC RELATIONSHIPS
• In statistical relationships among variables we essentially deal with random

or stochastic variables, that is, variables that have probability distributions.
In functional or deterministic dependency, on the other hand, we also deal
with variables, but these variables are not random or stochastic.
• The dependence of crop yield on temperature, rainfall, sunshine, and
fertilizer, for example, is statistical in nature in the sense that the
explanatory variables, although certainly important, will not enable the
agronomist to predict crop yield exactly because of errors involved in
measuring these variables as well as a host of other factors (variables) that
collectively affect the yield but may be difficult to identify individually.
Thus, there is bound to be some “intrinsic” or random variability in the
dependent-variable crop yield that cannot be fully explained no matter how
many explanatory variables we consider.
• In deterministic phenomena, on the other hand, we deal with relationships
of the type, say, exhibited by Newton’s law of gravity, which states: Every
particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. Symbolically, F = k(m1m2/r2),
where F = force, m1 and m2 are the masses of the two particles, r = distance,
and k = constant of proportionality. Another example is Ohm’s law, which
states: For metallic conductors over a limited range of temperature the
current C is proportional to the voltage V; that is, C = ( 1/k )V where 1/k is
the constant of proportionality. Other examples of such deterministic
relationships are Boyle’s gas law, Kirchhoff’s law of electricity, and
Newton’s law of motion. we are not concerned with such deterministic
relationships.
1.4 REGRESSION VERSUS CAUSATION
• Although regression analysis deals with the dependence of one variable on

other variables, it does not necessarily imply causation. In the crop-yield
example cited previously, there is no statistical reason to assume that rainfall
does not depend on crop yield. The fact that we treat crop yield as dependent
on rainfall (among other things) is due to non-statistical considerations:
Common sense suggests that the relationship cannot be reversed, for we
cannot control rainfall by varying crop yield.
• In all the examples cited in Section 1.2 the point to note is that a statistical
relationship in itself cannot logically imply causation. To ascribe causality,
one must appeal to a priori or theoretical considerations. Thus, in the third
example cited, one can invoke economic theory in saying that consumption
expenditure depends on real income.
1.5 REGRESSION VERSUS CORRELATION
• In correlation analysis, the primary objective is to measure the strength or

degree of linear association between two variables. The coefficient, measures
this strength of (linear) association. For example, we may be interested in
finding the correlation (coefficient) between smoking and lung cancer,
between scores on statistics and mathematics examinations, between high
school grades and college grades, and so on. In regression analysis, as
already noted, we are not primarily interested in such a measure. Instead,
we try to estimate or predict the average value of one variable on the basis of
the fixed values of other variables.
• Regression and correlation have some fundamental differences. In
regression analysis there is an asymmetry in the way the dependent and
explanatory variables are treated. The dependent variable is assumed to be
statistical, random, or stochastic, that is, to have a probability distribution.
The explanatory variables, on the other hand, are assumed to have fixed
values (in repeated sampling), which was made explicit in the definition of
regression given in Section 1.2. Thus, in Figure 1.2 we assumed that the
variable age was fixed at given levels and height measurements were
obtained at these levels.
• In correlation analysis, on the other hand, we treat any (two) variables
symmetrically; there is no distinction between the dependent and
explanatory variables. After all, the correlation between scores on
mathematics and statistics examinations is the same as that between scores
on statistics and mathematics examinations. Moreover, both variables are
assumed to be random. As we shall see, most of the correlation theory is
based on the assumption of randomness of variables, whereas most of the
regression theory to be expounded in this book is conditional upon the
assumption that the dependent variable is stochastic but the explanatory
variables are fixed or nonstochastic.
1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND NOTATION
• In the literature the terms dependent variable and explanatory variable are
described variously. A representative list is:
• We will use the dependent variable/explanatory variable or the more
neutral, regressand and regressor terminology.
• The term random is a synonym for the term stochastic. A random or
stochastic variable is a variable that can take on any set of values, positive
or negative, with a given probability. Unless stated otherwise, the letter Y
will denote the dependent variable and the X’s (X1, X2, . . . , Xk) will denote the
explanatory variables, Xk being the kth explanatory variable. The subscript i or
t will denote the ith or the tth observation or value. Xki (or Xkt) will denote the
ith (or tth) observation on variable Xk. N (or T) will denote the total number of
observations or values in the population, and n (or t) the total number of
observations in a sample. As a matter of convention, the observation
subscript i will be used for crosssectional data (i.e., data collected at one
point in time) and the subscript t will be used for time series data (i.e., data
collected over a period of time).
1.7 THE NATURE AND SOURCES OF DATA FOR ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
• Types of Data
• There are three types of data empirical analysis: time series, cross-section,
and pooled (i.e., combination of time series and crosssection) data.
• A time series is a set of observations on the values that a variable takes at
different times. It is collected at regular time intervals, such as daily,
weekly, monthly quarterly, annually, quinquennially, that is, every 5 years
(e.g., the census of manufactures), or decennially (e.g., the census of
population).
• Most empirical work based on time series data assumes that the underlying
time series is stationary. Loosely speaking a time series is stationary if its
mean and variance do not vary systematically over time. Consider Figure 1.5,
as you can see from this figure, the M1 money supply shows a steady
upward trend as well as variability over the years, suggesting that the M1
time series is not stationary.
• Cross-Section Data Cross-section data are data on one or more variables
collected at the same point in time, such as the census of population
conducted by the Census Bureau every 10 years (the latest being in year
2000), the surveys of consumer expenditures conducted by the University of
Michigan, and, of course, the opinion polls by Gallup and umpteen other
organizations. A concrete example of cross-sectional data is given in Table
1.1 This table gives data on egg production and egg prices for the 50 states
in the union for 1990 and 1991. For each year the data on the 50 states are
cross-sectional data. Thus, in Table 1.1 we have two cross-sectional samples.
Just as time series data create their own special problems (because of the
stationarity issue), cross-sectional data too have their own problems,
specifically the problem of heterogeneity.
• From the data given in Table 1.1 we see that we have some states that
produce huge amounts of eggs (e.g., Pennsylvania) and some that produce
very little (e.g., Alaska). When we include such heterogeneous units in a
statistical analysis, the size or scale effect must be taken into account so as
not to mix apples with oranges. To see this clearly, we plot in Figure 1.6 the
data on eggs produced and their prices in 50 states for the year 1990. This
figure shows how widely scattered the observations are. In Chapter 11 we
will see how the scale effect can be an important factor in assessing
relationships among economic variables.

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405: ECONOMETRICS

Chapter # 1: THE NATURE OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS

• Regression analysis is concerned with the study of the dependence of

• 8. Finally, an agronomist may be interested in studying the dependence of

• In statistical relationships among variables we essentially deal with random

• Although regression analysis deals with the dependence of one variable on

• In correlation analysis, the primary objective is to measure the strength or

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