General Chemistry

 Basic Concepts
 Atomic Theory
 Stoichiometry
 Gas Laws
 Analytical Chemistry
 Solution Equilibrium
 Colligative Properties
 Nuclear Chemistry
 Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that
matter undergoes (Brown, et.al, 2012)
Top Eight Chemicals Produced in the United States (Chemical and Engineering News, 2009)
Matter: is the physical material of the
universe; it is anything that has mass and
occupies space.
Antimatter: the opposite of matter, by

which, upon collision with matter,
disintegrates into energy.
States of Matter:
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
4. Plasma
5. Bose-Einstein Condensate
Classification of Matter
SI Units
Democritus – “All matter
consists of very small,
indivisible particles called
atomos.”
John Dalton – formulated

the atomic theory.
Ernest Rutherford – discovered atomic nucleus and proton via the gold foil
experiment which led to the development of the nuclear model of an atom
James Chadwick – discovered the neutron
Robert Millikan – performed the famous “oil-drop experiment” and

determined the charge of an electron
Mass Relationships:
Problem 1:
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% Cl-35 (atomic mass =

34.969 amu) and 24.22% Cl-37 (atomic mass = 36.966 amu).
Calculate the atomic weight of chlorine.
Avogadro’s Number
Problem 2: The Mole Concept

Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in making brass (with copper) and in
plating iron to prevent corrosion. How many moles of Zn are there in 45.9 g of
Zn? (1 mole Zn = 65.39 g)
Problem 3: Avogadro’s Number

Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned,
sulfur is converted to sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid, which gives
rise to the acid rain phenomenon. How many atoms are in 25.1 g of S?
Problem 4: Molecular Mass
Calculate the molecular masses of the following compounds: (a) sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and (b) caffeine (C8H10N4O2).
Problem 5: Percent Composition
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless, syrupy liquid used in detergents,

fertilizers, toothpastes, and in carbonated beverages for a “tangy” flavor.
Calculate the percent composition by mass of H, P, and O in this compound.
(P = 30.9736 g/mol; H = 1.00794 g/mol; O = 15.9994 g/mol)
Problem 6: Empirical Formula
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy. It is composed of 40.92 percent carbon

(C), 4.58 percent hydrogen (H), and 54.50 percent oxygen (O) by mass.
Determine its empirical formula.
Problem 7: Balancing Equations
When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a protective layer of aluminum oxide

(Al2O3) forms on its surface. This layer prevents further reaction between
aluminum and oxygen, and it is the reason that aluminum beverage cans do not
corrode. [In the case of iron, the rust, or iron(III) oxide, that forms is too porous
to protect the iron metal underneath, so rusting continues.] Write a balanced
equation for the formation of Al2O3.
Problem 8: Basic Stoichiometry
The food we eat is degraded, or broken down, in our bodies to provide energy
for growth and function. A general overall equation for this very complex
process represents the degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O):
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

If 968 g of glucose is consumed by a person over a certain period, what is the
mass of CO2 produced?
Problem 9: Limiting and Excess Reactants
Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide:
In one process, 849.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1223 g of CO2.

(a)Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent?
(b)Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.
(c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?
Problem 10: Percent Yield
Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is used in aircraft

bodies, jet engines, bicycle frames, and artificial joints. It is prepared by the
reaction of titanium (IV) chloride with molten magnesium between 950°C and
1150°C:
In a certain industrial operation, 2.84 x 107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with 1.09 x 107 g
of Mg.
(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams.
(b) Calculate the percent yield if 5.97 x 106 g of Ti are actually obtained.
(TiCl4 = 189.69 g/mol; Mg = 24.31 g/mol; MgCl2 = 95.21 g/mol; Ti = 47.89 g/mol)
Pressure
- force per unit area
Basic Conversion:
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 bar

= 14.696 psi
= 760 mmHg = 760 torr
= 10.3323 m H2O
Pabsolute = Patm + Pgauge

Pabsolute = Patm - Pvaccum
Gas Laws
1. Boyle’s Law 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1 𝑃2
2. Charles’ Law =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑉1 𝑉2
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law =
𝑇1 𝑇
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
4. Combined Gas Law =
𝑇1 𝑇2
5. Ideal Gas Law 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Gas Laws
6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑛
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑃𝑇
7. Amagat’s Law of Partial Volumes

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑉𝑇
Gas Laws
8. Graham’s Law
𝑟1 𝑀𝑊2
=
𝑟2 𝑀𝑊1
Problem 1: Gas Laws
A certain amount of gas at 25°C and at a pressure of 0.800 atm is contained

in a glass vessel. Suppose that the vessel can withstand a pressure of 2.00
atm. How high can you raise the temperature of the gas without bursting
the vessel?
Problem 2: Gas Laws
A gas evolved during the fermentation of glucose (wine making) has a

volume of 0.78 L when measured at 20.1°C and 1.00 atm. What was the
volume of this gas at the fermentation temperature of 36.5°C and 1.00 atm
pressure?
Problem 3: Gas Laws
Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. A 0.050-g sample of dry ice is placed in an
evacuated 4.6-L vessel at 30°C. Calculate the pressure inside the vessel
after all the dry ice has been converted to CO2 gas.
Problem 4: Applications
A 2.10 L vessel contains 4.65 g of a gas at 1.00 atm and 27.0°C. What is the
molar mass of the gas?
A certain anesthetic contains 64.9 percent C, 13.5 percent H, and 21.6

percent O by mass. At 120°C and 750 mmHg, 1.00 L of the gaseous
compound weighs 2.30 g.What is the molecular formula of the compound?
Dissolving 3.00 g of an impure sample of calcium carbonate in

hydrochloric acid produced 0.656 L of carbon dioxide (measured at 20.0°C
and 792 mmHg). Calculate the percent by mass of calcium carbonate in the
sample.
The empirical formula of a compound is CH. At 200°C, 0.145 g of this

compound occupies 97.2 mL at a pressure of 0.74 atm. What is the
molecular formula of the compound?
Propane (C3H8) burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide gas and water
vapor. (a) Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (b) Calculate the
number of liters of carbon dioxide measured at STP that could be
produced from 7.45 g of propane.
A 6.11-g sample of a Cu-Zn alloy reacts with HCl acid to produce hydrogen
gas. If the hydrogen gas has a volume of 1.26 L at 22°C and 728 mmHg,
what is the percent of Zn in the alloy? (Hint: Cu does not react with HCl)
(Zn = 65.38 g/mol)
Nickel forms a gaseous compound of the formula Ni(CO)x. What is the

value of x given the fact that under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure methane (CH4) effuses 3.3 times faster than the compound?
(Ni = 58.69 g/mol)
Gravimetric Analysis
- analysis of substances by virtue of its weight
Skill required: Elemental Balance
Volumetric Analysis
- analysis of substances by titration
Ex: neutralization reaction

Strength of Solutions
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 + , 𝑂𝐻 − , 𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀+ )
Problem 1: Gravimetric Analysis
A 0.7077 g sample of an ionic compound containing chloride ions and an unknown

metal is dissolved in water and treated with an excess of AgNO3. If 1.3602 g of
AgCl precipitate forms, what is the percent by mass of Cl in the original
compound?
A sample of 0.3220 g of an ionic compound containing the bromide ion is

dissolved in water and treated with an excess of AgNO3. If the mass of the AgBr
precipitate that forms is 0.6964 g, what is the percent by mass of Br in the original
compound?
A 0.8870-g sample of a mixture of NaCl and KCl is dissolved in water, and the
solution is then treated with an excess of AgNO3 to yield 1.913 g of AgCl.
Calculate the percent by mass of each compound in the mixture.
Problem 4: Volumetric Analysis
Calculate the concentration (in molarity) of a NaOH solution if 25.0 mL of the

solution are needed to neutralize 17.4 mL of a 0.312 M HCl solution.
A 3.664-g sample of a monoprotic acid was dissolved in water and required 20.27
mL of a 0.1578 M NaOH solution for neutralization. Calculate the molar mass of the
acid.
Acetylsalicylic acid (C9H8O4) is a monoprotic acid commonly known as “aspirin.” A

typical aspirin tablet, however, contains only a small amount of the acid. In an
experiment to determine its composition, an aspirin tablet was crushed and
dissolved in water. It took 12.25 mL of 0.1466 M NaOH to neutralize the solution.
Calculate the number of grains of aspirin in the tablet. (One grain = 0.0648 g.)
Equilibrium Constants
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐻 +
𝐾𝑤 = 𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻 − = 1𝑥10−14
𝐾𝑎 = 𝐻 + 𝐴−
𝐾𝑏 = 𝑀+ 𝑂𝐻 −
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = 𝑋 + 𝑥 𝑌− 𝑦
𝐶 𝑐 𝐷 𝑑
𝐾= 𝑎 𝑏
𝐴 𝐵
Problem 1: Solubility Product
The solubility of an ionic compound M2X3 (molar mass = 288 g) is 3.6 x 10-17
g/L.What is Ksp for the compound?
Problem 2: pH of Weak Acid
Calculate the pH and % dissociation of 0.25 M aqueous solution of weak acid

HA if it acid dissociation constant is 1.5 x 10-4.
Problem 3: pH of a Weak Base
The pH of 0.12 M aqueous solution of a weak base whose empirical formula is

MOH is 8.24 as measured by a pH meter. Determine its Kb value.
Problem 4: Hydrolysis of Salts
Calculate the pH of a 0.5 M sodium acetate solution. (Ka = 1.75 x 10-5).
Problem 5: Acid-Base Titration
Calculate the pH of the resulting solution when 50 mL of acetic acid solution is

neutralized completely with 20 mL of 0.75 M NaOH. (Ka = 1.75 x 10-5)
Problem 6: Buffer
Calculate the pH of the 0.20 M NH3 / 0.20 M NH4Cl buffer. (Kb = 1.75 x 10-5).
Problem 7: Acid-Base Titration
50 mL of a 0.3 M solution of a monoprotic weak acid (Ka = 1.75 x 10-6) is titrated

with 12.5 mL of 0.1 M NaOH solution. Determine the final pH.
Colligative Properties
1. Freezing Point Depression

∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝒊𝑲𝒇 𝒎
2. Boiling Point Elevation
∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝒊𝑲𝒃 𝒎
3. Vapor Pressure Lowering
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑿𝒊 𝑷𝒊 𝒐
𝒐
∆𝑷 = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝟏
4. Osmotic Pressure
π = 𝒊𝑴𝑹𝑻
van’t Hoff Factor

actual number of particles in soln after dissociation
𝒊=
number of formula units initially dissolved in soln
Problem 1: Osmotic Pressure
A 262-mL sample of a sugar solution containing 1.22 g of the sugar has an

osmotic pressure of 30.3 mmHg at 35°C. What is the molar mass of the
sugar?
Problem 2: Freezing Point Depression
A forensic chemist is given a white powder for analysis. She dissolves 0.50
g of the substance in 8.0 g of benzene. The solution freezes at 3.9°C. Can
the chemist conclude that the compound is cocaine
(C17H21NO4)?
Problem 3: Freezing Point Depression
Acetic acid is a polar molecule and can form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules. Therefore, it has a high solubility in water. Yet acetic acid is also
soluble in benzene (C6H6), a nonpolar solvent that lacks the ability to form
hydrogen bonds. A solution of 3.8 g of CH3COOH in 80 g C6H6 has a
freezing point of 3.5°C. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
Problem 4: Boiling Point Elevation
Determine the boiling point of a solution formed when 2.0 g of NaCl is

dissolved in 200 g of water.
1. Alpha Decay
2. Beta Decay
3. Gamma Decay
4. Neutron Capture
5. Nuclear Transmutation
Problem 1: Alpha Decay
Moscovium-288 is very short-lived and decays primarily by alpha

decay.What is the primary decay product of the reaction?
Problem 2: Beta Decay
Thorium-234 emits a beta particle in a thermonuclear reaction.

Determine its primary decay product.
Problem 3: Neutron Capture
Cadmium-113 is bombarded with fast neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

One neutron is captured by each atom of cadmium and releases
gamma particles. Determine the immediate decay product.
Problem 4: Nuclear Transmutation
Calcium-48 was bombarded to Berkelium-246 by a team led by Yuri

Oganessian at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory last
2010.What element was formed as a result of the bombardment?
Problem 5: Half Life
The half-life of Oganesson-294 is 0.7 ms. In

2010, the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory produced 22 mg of Oganesson-
294. Determine how much of the original
Oganesson-294 remains just 0.01 second
after it was produced. Assume the decay
follows the first-order nuclear rate law.
𝑑𝑁𝐴
= −𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Do not waste your time pursuing
something you don’t love.
If you do, you’ll always regret not
doing what you want to do.

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 Basic Concepts

Antimatter: the opposite of matter, by

John Dalton – formulated

James Chadwick – discovered the neutron

Robert Millikan – performed the famous “oil-drop experiment” and

Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% Cl-35 (atomic mass =

Problem 2: The Mole Concept

Problem 3: Avogadro’s Number

Problem 5: Percent Composition

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a colorless, syrupy liquid used in detergents,

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy. It is composed of 40.92 percent carbon

Problem 7: Balancing Equations

When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a protective layer of aluminum oxide

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide:

In one process, 849.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1223 g of CO2.

Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is used in aircraft

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 bar

Pabsolute = Patm + Pgauge

7. Amagat’s Law of Partial Volumes

A certain amount of gas at 25°C and at a pressure of 0.800 atm is contained

Problem 2: Gas Laws

A gas evolved during the fermentation of glucose (wine making) has a

A certain anesthetic contains 64.9 percent C, 13.5 percent H, and 21.6

Dissolving 3.00 g of an impure sample of calcium carbonate in

The empirical formula of a compound is CH. At 200°C, 0.145 g of this

Problem 10: Applications

Nickel forms a gaseous compound of the formula Ni(CO)x. What is the

Skill required: Elemental Balance

Ex: neutralization reaction

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

A 0.7077 g sample of an ionic compound containing chloride ions and an unknown

Problem 2: Gravimetric Analysis

A sample of 0.3220 g of an ionic compound containing the bromide ion is

Problem 4: Volumetric Analysis

Calculate the concentration (in molarity) of a NaOH solution if 25.0 mL of the

Problem 6: Volumetric Analysis

Acetylsalicylic acid (C9H8O4) is a monoprotic acid commonly known as “aspirin.” A

Problem 2: pH of Weak Acid

Calculate the pH and % dissociation of 0.25 M aqueous solution of weak acid

The pH of 0.12 M aqueous solution of a weak base whose empirical formula is

Problem 4: Hydrolysis of Salts

Calculate the pH of a 0.5 M sodium acetate solution. (Ka = 1.75 x 10-5).

Problem 5: Acid-Base Titration

Calculate the pH of the resulting solution when 50 mL of acetic acid solution is

Problem 7: Acid-Base Titration

50 mL of a 0.3 M solution of a monoprotic weak acid (Ka = 1.75 x 10-6) is titrated

1. Freezing Point Depression

van’t Hoff Factor

A 262-mL sample of a sugar solution containing 1.22 g of the sugar has an

Problem 2: Freezing Point Depression

Problem 4: Boiling Point Elevation

Determine the boiling point of a solution formed when 2.0 g of NaCl is

Moscovium-288 is very short-lived and decays primarily by alpha

Problem 2: Beta Decay

Thorium-234 emits a beta particle in a thermonuclear reaction.

Cadmium-113 is bombarded with fast neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Problem 4: Nuclear Transmutation

Calcium-48 was bombarded to Berkelium-246 by a team led by Yuri