ED-ME111

L-3

Dr. Poonam Kumari

 SCALES
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the
object as represented in a drawing to the actual dimensions
of the same. The proportion by which the drawing of a given
object is enlarged or reduced is called scale of the drawing.
It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to
its actual size. e.g. Buildings, Heavy machines, Bridges,
Watches, Electronic devices etc. Thus, following scales are used
Enlargement scales Reducing/ Reduction scales Full scale
Scales for the drawing of Scales for the drawing of Object is drawn on sheet to
small objects needs to be huge objects needs to be its actual size, then its drawn
enlarged reduced at full scale.
Format – X:1, X>1, RF>1 Format – 1:Y, Y>1, RF<1 Format – 1:1, RF=1
E.g. resistors, screws, gears E.g. buildings, bridges, E.g. spanner, pen, nut bolts
for electronics, Ics, transistors boilers, ships, aero planes etc.
RF (Representative Fraction)/ Scale factor
Ratio that indicates the scale of a drawing is called RF.
DIMENSION OF DRAWING
A REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF OBJECT

E.g. When a 1 cm long line in a LENGTH ON DRAWING

=
drawing represents 1 meter length of ACTUAL LENGTH
the object, AREA OF DRAWING
=
V ACTUAL AREA
VOLUME AS PER DRWG.
=3
V ACTUAL VOLUME

For RF above, both the lengths should have same units. All other
dimensions of the object should be drawn to the same RF.
Scale and RF are synonymous, as scale is formatted as X:Y, while
RF as X/Y.
Format of scale: SCALE X:Y written in the title block. If different
objects are drawn to diff. scales on a sheet, respective scale is
mentioned below the drawing of that object.
BIS (SP 46: 2003) recommended scales

Intermediate scales can be

. used in exceptional cases where

recommended scales can not be applied for functional reasons.

LOS (Length of Scale) (mm)
LENGTH OF SCALE (LOS)= R.F. X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

All the scales (except the scale of chords) are constructed by

drawing a line of length equivalent to the actual distance to be
represented. This length is called length of scale (LOS).
Types of scale
• Engineers Scale :
The relation between the dimension on the drawing and the
actual dimension of the object is mentioned numerically (like
10mm = 15 m).

• Graphical Scale:
Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care of the
shrinkage of the engineer’s scale when the drawing becomes
old. .

Types of scales
1. PLAIN SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
2. DIAGONAL SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
3. VERNIER SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS ( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)
Procedure to construct scales
1. Calculate RF, if not given
2. Calculate LOS
If the maximum distance to be represented is not known, it may be taken
equal to the maximum measurement (rounded off to the higher whole
number) to be made with the help of scale.
3. Draw a line = LOS. Divide this line into the required number of equal
parts. The divisions thus obtained are main divisions. Each main division
will indicate the main unit of measurement. In case of speed or rate the
same scale can be used for both
.
time and distance.
4. Mark zero at the end of the first main division. Number the main
divisions rightward from zero.
5. Divide the first main division into the required number of equal parts.
The subdivisions obtained indicates subunits of the main unit. Number
the subdivisions leftward from zero. Main unit is written below the
right end of the scale and the subunit below the first main division. RF
should be mentioned below the scale.
 BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE = 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE = 10 MILIMETRES

TYPES OF SCALES:
1. PLAIN SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
2. DIAGONAL SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
3. VERNIER SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS ( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)
Plain scales
A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of
equal units. The first unit is subdivided into smaller parts.
•The plain scales give only two dimensions, such as a unit and
it’s subunit or it’s fraction.
• The zero should be placed at the end of the 1st main unit.
• From the zero mark, the units should be numbered to the right
and the sub-divisions to the. left.
• The units and the subdivisions should be labelled clearly.
• The R.F. should be mentioned below the scale.
 PLAIN SCALE:-This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’s sub-division.
PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.
Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.

CONSTRUCTION:- DIMENSION OF DRAWING

PLAIN SCALE
a) Calculate R.F.=
DIMENSION OF OBJECT

R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

10 0 1 2 3 4 5 METERS
DECIMETERS
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
 PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000
PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

8KM 3HM

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
KILOMETERS
HECTOMETERS
R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.

CONSTRUCTION:-
PLAIN SCALE
a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)

Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour

= 1/ 2,00,000 30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one minute.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29 MINUTES.
14.5 KM

KM 5 2.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 KM

MIN 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
Diagonal scales
1. Through Diagonal scale, measurements can be up to second
decimal places (e.g. 4.35).
2. Are used to measure distances in a unit and its immediate
two subdivisions; e.g. dm, cm & mm, or yard, foot & inch.
3. Diagonal scale can measure more accurately than the plain
scale.

Concept (based on similarity of triangles)

1. At end B of line AB, draw . a perpendicular.
2. Step-off ten equal divisions of any length along
the perpendicular starting from B and ending at C.
3. Number the division points 9,8,7,…..1.
4. Join A with C.
5. Through the points 1, 2, 3, etc., draw lines parallel to AB and
cutting AC at 1΄, 2΄, 3΄, etc.
Diagonal scales
6. Since the triangles are similar; 1΄1 = 0.1 AB,
2΄2 = 0.2AB, …. 9΄9 = 0.9AB.
7. Gives divisions of a given short line AB in
multiples of 1/10 its length,
e.g. 0.1AB, 0.2AB, 0.3AB, etc.

.
 PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
DIAGONAL
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km SCALE
SOLUTION STEPS: RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 10 5 = 15 cm

Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km
222 km
10
9
8
7
6
KM

5
4
3
2
1
0
KM
100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500 KM
R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

 PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.

SOLUTION : DIAGONAL
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters SCALE
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
Draw a line 15 cm long.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal parts.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land ( each will represent 100 m.)
1 cm sq. on map represents Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land represent 10 m.
1 cm on map represent Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 cm
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division
= 4, 000 cm of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / 4000 Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m. and complete diagonal scale.
438 meters

10
9
8
7
6
5
M

4
3
2
1
0
M 100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500 M
R.F. = 1 / 4000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS.

PROBLEM NO.6:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters
and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.

SOLUTION STEPS: DIAGONAL

R.F. = 1 / 2.5 SCALE
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm.
= 8 cm.
1.Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)
2.Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3.At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and
on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
4.Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.

13 .4 CM

10
9
8
7
6
MM

5
4
3
2
1
0
CM 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 CENTIMETRES

R.F. = 1 / 2.5
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS.
COMPARATIVE SCALES: EXAMPLE NO. 7 :
These are the Scales having same R.F. A distance of 40 miles is represented by a line
but graduated to read different units. 8 cm long. Construct a plain scale to read 80 miles.
These scales may be Plain scales or Diagonal scales Also construct a comparative scale to read kilometers
and may be constructed separately or one above the other. upto 120 km ( 1 m = 1.609 km )

SOLUTION STEPS:
CONSTRUCTION:
Scale of Miles:
Take a line 16 cm long and divide it into 8 parts. Each will represent 10 miles.
40 miles are represented = 8 cm
Subdivide the first part and each sub-division will measure single mile.
: 80 miles = 16 cm
R.F. = 8 / 40 X 1609 X 1000 X 100
= 1 / 8, 04, 500

Scale of Km: CONSTRUCTION:

Length of scale On the top line of the scale of miles cut off a distance of 14.90 cm and divide
= 1 / 8,04,500 X 120 X 1000 X 100 it into 12 equal parts. Each part will represent 10 km.
= 14. 90 cm Subdivide the first part into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will show single km.

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 KM
5

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 MILES

R.F. = 1 / 804500
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MILES AND KILOMETERS
 SOLUTION STEPS:
Scale of km.
COMPARATIVE SCALE: length of scale = RF X 60 km
= 1 / 4,00,000 X 60 X 105
= 15 cm.
EXAMPLE NO. 8 : CONSTRUCTION:
A motor car is running at a speed of 60 kph. Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts.
On a scale of RF = 1 / 4,00,000 show the distance ( each part will represent 10 km.)
traveled by car in 47 minutes. Subdivide 1st part in `0 equal subdivisions.
( each will represent 1 km.)

Time Scale:
Same 15 cm line will represent 60 minutes.
Construct the scale similar to distance scale.
It will show minimum 1 minute & max. 60min.

47 MINUTES

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
MIN.

KM 5 40
10 0 10 20 30 50 KM

47 KM

R.F. = 1 / 4,00,000
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MINUTES AND KILOMETERS
EXAMPLE NO. 9 :
A car is traveling at a speed of 60 km per hour. A 4 cm long line represents the distance traveled by the car in two hours.
Construct a suitable comparative scale up to 10 hours. The scale should be able to read the distance traveled in one minute.
Show the time required to cover 476 km and also distance in 4 hours and 24 minutes.
SOLUTION: COMPARATIVE
4 cm line represents distance in two hours , means for 10 hours scale, 20 cm long line is required, as length SCALE:
of scale.This length of scale will also represent 600 kms. ( as it is a distance traveled in 10 hours)
CONSTRUCTION:
Distance Scale ( km)
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 60 km)
Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will represent 10 km)
At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE km.
Time scale:
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 1 hour) Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will
represent 10 minutes) At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE minute.
TIME SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 MINUTE.
10

MIN.0
60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 hrs 24 min. ( 264 kms ) HOURS
476 kms ( 7 hrs 56 min.)
10
kM

0
kM 60 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
DISTANCE SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 KM KILOMETERS
Vernier scales
1. Similar to Diagonal scale, Vernier scale is used for measuring
up to second decimal.
2. A Vernier scale consists of (i) a primary scale and (ii) vernier.
3. The primary scale is a plain scale fully divided in to minor
divisions. Subdivision on main scale is called main scale div.
4. The graduations on the vernier are derived from those on
the primary scale. Subdivision - vernier scale division (VSD).
5. Vernier is auxillary scale above main scale whose length can
be more or less by fixed. amount than that of main div.

Least count (LC)

It is the minimum
distance that can be
measured precisely
by a given vernier scale.
Vernier Scales:
These scales, like diagonal scales , are used to read to a very small unit with great accuracy.
It consists of two parts – a primary scale and a vernier. The primary scale is a plain scale fully
divided into minor divisions.
As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor divisions in ordinary way, it is done with the help of the vernier.
The graduations on vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.

Figure to the right shows a part of a plain scale in

which length A-O represents 10 cm. If we divide A-O B 9.9 7.7 5.5 3.3 1.1 0

into ten equal parts, each will be of 1 cm. Now it would

not be easy to divide each of these parts into ten equal
divisions to get measurements in millimeters.
A 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Now if we take a length BO equal to 10 + 1 = 11 such

equal parts, thus representing 11 cm, and divide it into
ten equal divisions, each of these divisions will
represent 11 / 10 – 1.1 cm.

The difference between one part of AO and one division

of BO will be equal 1.1 – 1.0 = 0.1 cm or 1 mm.
This difference is called Least Count of the scale.
Minimum this distance can be measured by this scale.
The upper scale BO is the vernier.The combination of
plain scale and the vernier is vernier scale.
Determination of LC
This can be determined by the following expression:
LC = MSD – VSD ( if MSD > VSD) – forward vernier scale
LC = VSD – MSD ( if VSD > MSD) - backward vernier scale

The LC is mentioned as a fraction of the MSD.

If the MSD of a scale represents 1 mm and LC is 0.1 mm,
LC = 0.1 mm = (1/10) MSD
Case of forward scale
Assume MSD > VSD .
LC = MSD –VSD
1/10 MSD = MSD –VSD
i.e., VSD = MSD – 1/10 MSD
10 VSD = 9 MSD
i.e., Length of VSD = 9 MSD.
This length must be divided in to 10 equal parts so that LC = 0.1
mm
Determination of LC…..
Case of backward scale
Assume VSD > MSD
LC = VSD – MSD
1/10 MSD = VSD – MSD
i.e., VSD = 1/10 MSD + MSD
10 VSD = 11 MSD
This length is to be divided in to 20 equal parts so that LC = 0.1 mm
Concept of vernier scale
1. Length A0 represents 10 cm
.
& is divided in to 10 equal parts
each representing 1 cm.
2. B0 = 11 (i.e. 10+1) such equal parts = 11 cm.
3. Divide B0 into 10 equal divisions. Each division of B0 will be
equal to 11/10 = 1.1 cm or 11 mm.
4. Difference between 1 part of A0 and one part of B0 =
1.1 cm -1.0cm = 0.1cm or 1 mm. (least count of the scale)
Example 10:
Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read centimeters upto Vernier Scale
4 meters and on it, show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m

SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)

Length of scale = RF X max. Distance Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in 10 equal parts.
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100 Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm and construct a rectangle
= 16 cm Covering these parts of vernier.
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 16 cm long. TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
Divide it in 4 equal parts. (1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4 m
( each will represent meter ) The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero) is 2.39 m
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. (2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 – 0.11 =0.80 m
( each will represent decimeter ) The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is 0.91 m
Name those properly.

2.39 m

0.91 m

1.1 .99 .77 .55 .33 .11 0

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 0 1 1.4 2 3 METERS

METERS
Example 11: A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of 6250 sq.Kms.
Construct a vernier scaleto measure kilometers, hectometers and decameters Vernier Scale
and long enough to measure upto 7 km. Indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59 decameters.
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale) TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
AREA OF DRAWING Draw a line 14 cm long. a) For 5.33 km :
RF = Divide it in 7 equal parts. Subtract 0.33 from 5.33
V ACTUAL AREA
i.e. 5.33 - 0.33 = 5.00
( each will represent km )
= 500 X 50 cm sq. Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. The distance between 33 dm
V 6250 km sq. ( left of Zero) and
( each will represent hectometer ) 5.00 (right of Zero) is 5.33 k m
= 2 / 105 Name those properly. (b) For 59 dm :
Subtract 0.99 from 0.59
Length of CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier) i.e. 0.59 – 0.99 = - 0.4 km
scale = RF X max. Distance ( - ve sign means left of Zero)
Take 11 parts of hectometer part length
= 2 / 105 X 7 kms The distance between 99 dm and
and divide it in 10 equal parts. - .4 km is 59 dm
= 14 cm Each will show 1.1 hm m or 11 dm and (both left side of Zero)
Covering in a rectangle complete scale.

59 dm 5.33 km
Decameters
99 77 55 33 11

90 70 50 30 10

10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
HECTOMETERS
KILOMETERS
 800 900
700
600 SCALE OF CORDS
500

400

300

200

100

00 A O

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

CONSTRUCTION:
1. DRAW SECTOR OF A CIRCLE OF 900 WITH ‘OA’ RADIUS.
( ‘OA’ ANY CONVINIENT DISTANCE )
2. DIVIDE THIS ANGLE IN NINE EQUAL PARTS OF 10 0 EACH.
3. NAME AS SHOWN FROM END ‘A’ UPWARDS.
4. FROM ‘A’ AS CENTER, WITH CORDS OF EACH ANGLE AS RADIUS
DRAW ARCS DOWNWARDS UP TO ‘AO’ LINE OR IT’S EXTENSION
AND FORM A SCALE WITH PROPER LABELING AS SHOWN.

AS CORD LENGTHS ARE USED TO MEASURE & CONSTRUCT

DIFERENT ANGLES IT IS CALLED SCALE OF CORDS.
PROBLEM 12: Construct any triangle and measure it’s angles by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION: SCALE OF CORDS
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem. 0
Then construct a triangle of given sides. ( You are supposed to measure angles x, y and z) 800 90
700
To measure angle at x: 600
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on lower side of triangle 500
as shown from corner x. Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius
400
draw an arc upto upper adjacent side.Name the point B.
Take A-B cord in compass and place on scale of cords from Zero. 300
It will give value of angle at x
To measure angle at y: 200
Repeat same process from O1. Draw arc with radius O1A1.
100
Place Cord A1B1 on scale and get angle at y.
To measure angle at z: A O
00
Subtract the SUM of these two angles from 1800 to get angle at z. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

B1
z

550 300
y x
O1 A1 A O

Angle at z = 180 – ( 55 + 30 ) = 950

PROBLEM 12: Construct 250 and 1150 angles with a horizontal line , by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION: SCALE OF CORDS
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem. 0
Then Draw a horizontal line. Mark point O on it. 0 800 90
70
To construct 250 angle at O. 600
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on on the line drawn, from O 500
Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius draw an arc upward.. 400
Take cord length of 250 angle from scale of cords in compass and
from A cut the arc at point B.Join B with O. The angle AOB is thus 250 300
To construct 1150 angle at O.
This scale can measure or construct angles upto 900 only directly. 200
Hence Subtract 1150 from 1800.We get 750 angle ,
100
O
which can be constructed with this scale.
Extend previous arc of OA radius and taking cord length of 750 in compass cut this arc
A
00
at B1 with A as center. Join B1 with O. Now angle AOB1 is 750 and angle COB1 is 1150. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

B B1

250
A O
750
1150

C
A O

To construct 250 angle at O. To construct 1150 angle at O.

Example: A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of 6250 sq.Kms.
Construct a vernier scale to measure kilometers, hectometers and decameters Vernier Scale
and long enough to measure upto 7 km. Indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59 decameters.
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale) TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
AREA OF DRAWING Draw a line 14 cm long. a) For 5.33 km :
RF = Divide it in 7 equal parts. Subtract 0.33 from 5.33
V ACTUAL AREA
i.e. 5.33 - 0.33 = 5.00
( each will represent km )
= 500 X 50 cm sq. Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. The distance between 33 dm
V 6250 km sq. ( left of Zero) and
( each will represent hectometer ) 5.00 (right of Zero) is 5.33 k m
= 2 / 105 Name those properly. (b) For 59 dm :
Subtract 0.99 from 0.59
Length of CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier) i.e. 0.59 – 0.99 = - 0.4 km
scale = RF X max. Distance ( - ve sign means left of Zero)
Take 11 parts of hectometer part length
= 2 / 105 X 7 kms The distance between 99 dm and
and divide it in 10 equal parts. - .4 km is 59 dm
= 14 cm Each will show 1.1 hm m or 11 dm and (both left side of Zero)
Covering in a rectangle complete scale.

59 dm 5.33 km
Decameters
99 77 55 33 11

90 70 50 30 10

10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
HECTOMETERS
KILOMETERS