BLOOD

Joanna Gwen F. Fabrero

 Preventing Blood Loss
• Vascular Spasm
• Platelet Plug Formation
 Preventing Blood Loss
Vascular Spasm
Immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel that
result when smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel
contracts
Can close small vessel completely and stop the flow of blood
through it.
Chemicals also produce Vascular Spasm.
 Preventing Blood Loss
Platelet Plug Formation
An accumulation of platelets that can seal up a small break in a
blood vessel.
Very important in maintaining the integrity of the blood vessel of
the cardiovascular system
People who lack the normal number of platelets tend to develop
numerous small hemorrhages in their skin and internal organs.
Platelet Plug Formation
 Blood Clotting
Blood clotting- when a blood vessel is severely damaged,
results in the formation of a clot.
Clot-A network of threadlike protein fibers called fibrin.
Fibrin- Traps blood cells, platelets and fluid
Clotting Factors- Formation of a blood clot depends on a
number of proteins found within plasma.
Clot Formation Stages
 Control of Clot Formation
• Anticoagulants- prevent clotting factors from forming clots
under normal conditions.
Example:
Anthithrombin and heparin inactive thrombin. Without thrombin ,
fibrinogen is not converted to fibrin, and no clot forms. At injury site,
however, the activation of clotting factors is very rapid. Enough clotting
factors are activated that the anticoagulatecan no longer prevent clot from
forming. Away from the injury site, there are enough anticoagulants to prevent
clot formation from spreading.
 Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
• Clot Retraction-process when the clot has formed, it begins to condensed into
a more compact structure.
• Fibrinolysis – process to dissolve clots
• Plasminogen- Inactivate plasma protein
• Plasmin- Active form
• Tissue plasma activator (t-PA) –released from surrounding tissues can
stimulate the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin.
• Streptokinase- a bacterial enzyme
FIBRINOLYSIS
 Blood Grouping
• Transfusion- the transfer of blood or blood components
from one individual to another.
• Infusion- introduction of a fluid other than blood.
• Transfusion reaction- clumping or rupture of blood cells
and clotting within blood vessels.
• Antigens- molecules in the surface of red blood cells
 Blood Grouping
• Antibodies- proteins that includes in the plasma
• Agglutination- when the antibodies in the plasma bind to the
antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
• Hemolysis- combination of the antibodies with the antigens
initiates reactions.
• Blood Groups- ABO and Dh blood groups are the most
important when discussing transfusion reactions.
Agglutination Reaction
 ABO Blood Group
• Type A blood has A antigens, type B blood has B antigens, type AB
blood has A and B antigens, and type O blood has neither A nor B
antigens
• Type A blood has anti-B antibodies, type B blood has anti-A
antibodies, type AB blood has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies, and
type O blood has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
• Mismatching the ABO blood group can result in transfusion reaction.
ABO Blood Group
 RH Blood Group
• Rh-positive blood has RH antigens whereas Rh-negative
blood does not.
• Antibodies against the RH antigen are produced when an Rh-
negative person is exposed to Rh- positive blood
• Rh blood group is responsible for hemolytic disease of the
new born, which can occur when the fetus is Rh-positive
and the mother is Rh-negative.
 Diagnostic Blood Test
• Type and Crossmatch
 Blood Typing determines the ABO and Rh blood groups of a blood sample
 Crossmatch ,the donor’s serum is mixed with the recipient’s cells. The donor’s blood is
considered safe for transfusion only if no agglutination occurs in either match.
 Diagnostic Blood Test
• Complete Blood Count
Consist of a red blood cell count, hemoglobin and
hematocrit measurments, and a white blood cell count.
• Red Blood Count (million/µL)
For male is 4.6-6.2 million per microliter of blood. Female
is 4.2-5.4 million per microliter of blood.
Erythrocytosis- is an overabundance of red blood cells.
 Diagnostic Blood Test
• Hemoglobin Measurement (grams of hemoglobin/100 mL of
blood)
For male is 14-18 grams and for female 12-16 grams per 100 mL of
blood
Anemia-An abnormally low haemoglobin measurement, which is
either a reduced number of red blood cells or a reduced amount of
haemoglobin in each red blood cell.
 Diagnostic Blood Test
• White Blood Count (million/µL)
Leukopenia- a lower than normal WBC resulting from decreased
production of the red marrow.
Leukocytosis- An abnormally high WBC.
Leukemia- Cancer of the red marrow, by abnormal production of
one or more of the white blood cells types, can cause leucocytosis.
Hematocrit
 Diagnostic Blood Test
• Differential White Blood Count
 Determines the percentage of the five kinds of white blood cells.
Neutrophils- 60-70%
Lymphocytes- 20-25%
Monocytes- 3-8%
Eosinophil's- 2-4%
Basophils- 0.5-1%
 Diagnostic Blood Test
• Clotting
Platelet Count- 250,000-400,000 platelets per microliter of blood
Thrombocytopenia-the platelet count is greatly reduced,
resulting in chronic bleeding through small vessels and
capillaries.
Prothrombin Time Measurement
Calculates how long it takes for the blood to start clotting,
which is normally9-12 sec.
 Diagnostic Blood Test
• Blood Chemistry
The composition of materials dissolved or suspended in
the plasma can be used to asses the functioning of many
of the body system.
 Source
• Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 9th edition

II.5 Preventing Blood Loss 304

II.6 Blood Grouping 308
II.7 Diagnostic Blood Test 310