Underwater Communications

Milica Stojanovic
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 Future systems / requirements
• Today: point-to-point acoustic links
• Future: autonomous networks for ocean observation
• Examples of future networks:
– ad hoc deployable sensor networks
– autonomous fleets of cooperating AUVs

•Types of nodes:
–fixed, slowly moving, mobile
–sensors, relays, gateways
•Types of signals, system requirements:
–low/high rate (~100 bps-100kbps)
–real-time/non real-time
–high/moderate reliability
•Configurations:
–stand alone
–integrated (e.g., cabled observatories)
NSF ITR: “Acoustic networks, navigation and sensing
for multiple autonomous underwater robotic vehicles.”
 Overview

• Channel characteristics
• Signal processing: bandwidth-efficient
underwater acoustic communications
• Example: application to oil field monitoring
• Future research
 Communication channel / summary
Physical constraints of acoustic propagation:
• limited, range-dependent bandwidth
• time-varying multipath
• low speed of sound (1500 m/s) B>1/Tmp
frequency-selective
fading

A(d,f)~dka(f)d
N(f)~Kf-b
Worst of both radio worlds
(land mobile / satellite)

System constraints:
• transducer bandwidth
• battery power
tt(1±v/c) • half-duplex
ff(1±v/c)
Signal processing
for high rate inp.1 com-
data est.
acoustic inp.2 biner forward data out
+ _ decision
communciations forward
Bandwidth-efficient modulation (PSK, QAM)
•phase-coherent detection: feedback
•synchronization inp. K filter
•equalziation coefficients
•multichannel combining
sync. adaptation algorithm
(JASA ‘95, with J.Proakis, J.Catipovic)

Ex. New England Continental Shelf, 50 n.mi, 1 kHz training data

Example:
New England Continental Shelf
 Real-time underwater video?
Underwater image transmission: sequence of images (JPEG) at < 1 frame/sec
MPEG-4 : 64 kbps (video conferencing)
Can we achieve 100 kbps over an acoustic channel?

Compression to High-level Experiment:

reduce bit rate modulation to
needed for video ? increase the bit Woods Hole, 2002
representation rate supported by 6 bits/symbol (64 QAM)
acoustic channel 150 kbps in 25 kHz bandwidth

( IEEE Oceans ’03, with C.Pelekanakis)

 Current achievements
•Point-to-point (2/4/8PSK;8/16/64QAM)
medium range (1 km-10 km ~ 10 kbps)
long range (10 km – 100 km ~1 kbps)
basin scale (3000 km ~ 10 bps)
vertical (3 km~15kbps, 10 m~150 kbps)

•Mobile communications
AUV to AUV at 5 kbps

•Multi-user communications
five users, each at 1.4 kbps in 5 kHz band

WHOI micro-modem:
Research in signal processing •Fixed point DSP
Goals: low rate FSK (~100 bps) w/noncoherent detection
•low complexity processing •Floating point co-processor
•improved performance high rate PSK (~5000 bps) w/coherent detection
•better bandwidth utilization (adaptive DFE, Doppler tracking, coding)
Specific topics: • 4-channel input
•spread spectrum communications (CDMA, LPD) •10-50 W tx / 3W rx (active)
•multiple tx/rx elements (MIMO) •1.75 in x 5 in.
•multi-carrier modulation (OFDM) Commercial modems: Benthos, LinkQuest.
 Example: Application to oil-field monitoring
Example:
Q: Is real-time supervisory control of the AUV possible?
AUV to base range ~ 60 m.
A:Not over long distances, where the propagation delay
is many seconds, but possibly over short distances. acoustic link delay = 40 ms
cabled link delay = negligible
Bonus: The available acoustic bandwidth is much greater
over short distances. acoustic band ~ several 100 kHz
bit rate > 100 kbs : well within
current video compression technology

alternative: optical communciation

high rate (Mbps)
short distance platform low distance ~ 10 m
high bandwidth sea level
acoustic link
AUV

base power, communications, oil

station base
station

base
station
 Open problems and future research
Experimental networks:
Fundamental questions: System specification:
Statistical channel modeling typical vs. application-specific (traffic patterns, performance requirements)
Network capacity optimization criteria (delay, throughput, reliability, energy efficiency)
Concept demonstration:
Research areas: simulation
Data compression in-water
Signal processing for communications: prototypes
adaptive modulation / coding
channel estimation / prediction
System integration:
multiple in/out channels (tx/rx arrays)
Cabled observatories
multi-user communications
Integration of wireless communications:
communications in hostile environment
cabled backbone + mobile nodes = extended reach
Communication networks:
Wireless extension: acoustical and optical
network layout / resource allocation and reuse
network architecture / cross layer optimization
network protocols: all layers

Underwater optical communications:

blue-green region (450-550 nm)
+much higher bandwidth (~Mbps)
+negligible delay complementary
-short distance (<100 m) to acoustics
 Channel characteristics: Attenuation and noise

Attentuation (path loss): A(d,f)=dka(f)d

10logA(d,f)=10klog d + d 10 log a(f)
Absorption coefficient increases rapidly with
frequency: fundamental bandwidth limitation.
spreading absorption
loss loss
Only very low frequencies propagate
over long distances
2 spherical spreading
k= 1.5 practical spreading
1 cylindrical spreading

Thorp’s formula for absorption coefficient (empirical):

10 log a(f) = 0.11 f2/(1+f2)+44 f2/(4100+f2)+0.000275 f2+0.003 dB/km, for f [kHz]

absorption fundamental limitation of maximal frequency

 Noise Ambient (open sea): p.s.d. [dB re μPa], f[kHz]
• turbulence: 17 -30 log f
Site-specific: • shipping: 40+20(s-0.5)+26log f-60log(f+0.03)
• man-made • surface: 50+7.5w0.5+20log f-40 log (f+0.4)
• biological (e.g., shrimp) • thermal: -15+20 log f
• ice cracking, rain
• seismic events

Majority of ambient noise sources:

• continuous p.s.d.
• Gaussian statistics

Approximation: N(f)=Kf-b 
noise p.s.d. decays at b=18 dB/dec
 Signal to noise ratio (SNR)

PR(d,f)~PT/A(d,f)
SNR(d,f) ~ - 10∙klog d - d∙10 log a(f) - b∙10log f
PN(f)~N(f)Δf

• There exists an optimal center frequency

for a given distance.
• Bandwidth is limited: lower end by
noise, upper end by absorption.
• Additional limitation:
transducer bandwidth.

Bandwidth-efficient modulation needed for high-rate communications.

Many short hops offer larger bandwidth than one long hop (as well as lower energy consumption).
 Multipath propagation
• Multipath structure depends on the channel geometry, signal frequency, sound speed profile.
• Sound pressure field at any location, time, is given by the solution to the wave equation.
• Approximations to this solution represent models of sound propagation (deterministic).
• Models are used to obtain a more accurate prediction of the signal strength.

• Ray model provides insight into the mechanisms of multipath formation:

deep water—ray bending
shallow water—reflections from surface, bottom, objects.
c land sea

surface layer (mixing) continental shelf (~100 m)

const. temperature (except under ice)
main thermocline continental slice
temperature decreases rapidly

deep ocean
constant temperature (4 deg. C) continental rise
pressure increases
abyssal
plain
Sound speed increases with temperature, pressure, salinity.
depth
surf shallow deep
 Mechanisms of multipath formation
Deep water: a ray, launched at some angle, bends towards Shallow water: reflections at surface have little loss;
the region of lower sound speed (Snell’s law). reflection loss at bottom depends on the type
Continuous application of Snell’s law  ray diagram (trace). (sand,rock, etc.), angle of incidence, frequency.

c distance

tx tx rx

Multipath gets attenuated because of

repeated reflection loss, increased path length.
depth

Deep sound channeling:

-rays bend repeatedly towards the depth at which the Length of each path can be calculated
sound speed is minimal from geometry:
-sound can travel over long distances in this manner lp: pth path length
(no reflection loss). τp= lp /c: pth path delay
Ap=A(lp,f): pth path attenuation
Gp= Γp/Ap1/2: path gain
Γp: p path reflection coefficient
th
 Examples: ensembles of
measured channel responses

Time variability:
•Inherent: internal waves, changes in fine vertical structure
of water, small-scale turbulence, surface motion
•Motion-induced: v/c~10-3 at v~few knots, c=1500 m/s!
Propagation speed
Nominal: c=1500 m/s (compare to 3∙108 m/s!)

Two types of problems:

-motion-induced Doppler distortion (v~ few m/s for an AUV)
-long propagation delay / high latency

tt(1±v/c)
ff(1±v/c)