PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF

CVS
PHYSIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
COURSE OUTLINE
 1. Arrhythmia: Abnormal impulse generation and
conduction in the heart

 2. Clinical interpretation of ECG

 3. Pathophysiology of hypertension

 4. Peripheral circulatory failure: Shock

 5. Cardiac reserve compensation and failure:

principles of heart failure.

 6. Pathophysiology of congenital and valvular heart

diseases.
Impulse Transmission
Normal Sinus Rhythm
Normal Sinus Rhythm
 Arrhythmia
 Arrhythmia refers to irregular heartbeat or disturbance in the
rhythm of heart.

 The causes of the cardiac arrhythmias are usually one or a

combination of the following abnormalities in the rhythmicity-
conduction system of the heart:

 • Abnormal rhythmicity of the pacemaker

 • Shift of the pacemaker from the sinus node to another place
in the heart
 • Blocks at different points in the spread of the impulse
through the heart
 • Abnormal pathways of impulse transmission through the
heart
 • Spontaneous generation of spurious impulses in almost any
part of the heart
Impulse Transmission
Classification of Arrhythmia
 In arrhythmia, heartbeat may be fast or slow or there
may be an extra beat or a missed beat.

 Classification of arrhythmia is based on whether the SA

node is the pacemaker or other nodes.

 Accordingly, arrhythmia is classified into two types:

 A. Normotopic arrhythmia
 B. Ectopic arrhythmia.

 Normotopic arrhythmia: Normotopic arrhythmia is the

irregular heartbeat, in which SA node is the pacemaker.
Classification of Arrhythmia
 Normotopic arrhythmia is of three types:
 1. Sinus arrhythmia
 2. Sinus tachycardia
 3. Sinus bradycardia.

 Sinus Arrhythmia (Normal):

 Sinus arrhythmia is a normal rhythmical increase and
decrease in heart rate, in relation to respiration.

 It is also called respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) or

Normal sinus rhythm.
Sinus Arrhythmia
 Normal heart rate is 72 per minute.

 However, under physiological conditions, heart rate varies

according to the phases of respiratory cycle.

 Heart rate increases during inspiration and decreases

during expiration.

 ECG CHANGES: ECG in sinus arrhythmia. Normal P-QRS-T.

R-R interval is shortened during inspiration and prolonged
during expiration
Sinus Arrhythmia
Sinus tachycardia
 Sinus tachycardia is the increase in discharge of impulses
from SA node, resulting in increase in heart rate.

 Discharge of impulses from SA node is very rapid.

 Heart rate increases up to 100/minute- 150/minute.

 ECG CHANGES:
 Normal P-QRS-T
 R-R interval is shortened
Sinus tachycardia
 Sinus tachycardia occurs in physiological as well as pathological
conditions
 Physiological conditions when tachycardia occurs
 1. Exercise
 2. Emotion
 3. High altitude
 4. Pregnancy.
 Pathological conditions when tachycardia occurs
 1. Fever
 2. Anemia
 3. Hyperthyroidism
 4. Hypersecretion of catecholamines
 5. Cardiomyopathy
 6. Valvular heart disease
 7. Hemorrhagic shock.
Sinus bradycardia
 Sinus bradycardia is the reduction in discharge of
impulses from SA node resulting in decrease in heart
rate.
 Heart rate is less than 60/minute.
 ECG CHANGES:
 Normal P-QRS-T.
 R-R interval is prolonged.
Sinus bradycardia
 Physiological conditions when sinus bradycardia occurs
 1. Sleep
 2. Athletic heart.
 Pathological conditions when sinus bradycardia occurs
 1. Disease of SA node
 2. Hypothermia
 3. Hypothyroidism
 4. Heart attack
 5. Congenital heart disease
 6. Degenerative process of aging
 7. Obstructive jaundice
 8. Increased intracranial pressure
Features of bradycardia and tarchycardia
 Features of Sinus Tachycardia
 1. Palpitations (sensation of feeling the heartbeat)
 2. Dizziness
 3. Fainting
 4. Shortness of breath
 5. Chest discomfort (angina).

 Features of Sinus Bradycardia

 1. Sick sinus syndrome
 2. Fatigue
 3. Weakness
 4. Shortness of breath
 5. Lack of concentration
 6. Difficulty in exercising.
ECTOPIC ARRHYTHMIA
 Ectopic arrhythmia is the abnormal heartbeat, in which one
of the structures of heart other than SA node becomes the
pacemaker.
 Impulses for heartbeat arise from any part of conductive
system or from the musculature of heart.

 Different Ectopic Arrhythmia

 1. Heart block
 2. Extrasystole
 3. Paroxysmal tachycardia
 4. Atrial flutter
 5. Atrial fibrillation
 6. Ventricular fibrillation.
Classification of Arrhythmia
Heart Block
 Heart block is the blockage of impulses generated by
SA node in the conductive system.

 Because of the blockage, the impulses cannot reach the

cardiac musculature.

 Resulting in ectopic arrhythmia.

 The heart block is classified into two:

 1. Sinoatrial block
 2. Atrioventricular block.
Sinoatrial Block (Sinus Block)
 Sinoatrial block is the failure of impulse transmission from SA node to
AV node.

 During sinoatrial block, heart stops beating.

 Immediately, AV node takes over the pacemaker function and

produces the impulses.

 This leads to AV nodal (atrioventricular) rhythm.

 Sinoatrial block is due to the defect in internodal fibers and it occurs

suddenly.
 In upper nodal rhythm- P wave of ECG is inverted.
 In middle nodal rhythm-P wave is absent as it merges QPS
 In lower nodal rhythm - R-P interval is obtained instead of P-R
interval. (Also called reversed heart block).
Atrioventricular Block
 Atrioventricular block is the heart block in which the
impulses are not transmitted from atria (from AV
node) to ventricles because of defective conductive
system.

 Atrioventricular block is of two categories:

 1. Incomplete heart block
 2. Complete heart block.
Incomplete heart block
 Incomplete heart block is the condition in which the
transmission of impulses from atria to ventricles is
slowed down and not blocked completely.

 Impulses reach ventricles late.

 Incomplete heart block is of four types:

 i. First degree heart block
 ii. Second degree heart block
 iii. Wenckebach phenomenon
 iv. Bundle branch block.
 Incomplete heart block
 First degree heart block: conduction of impulses through
AV node is very slow (delayed conduction).
 the P-R interval is very much prolonged and is more than
0.2 second.
 Common in young adults and trained athletes.
 It is also caused by rheumatic fever and some drugs.

 Second degree heart block: some of the impulses

produced by SA node fail to reach the ventricles (partial
heart block).
 Atrial ventricular contraction is 2 : 1, 3 : 1 or 4
 In ECG, the ventricular complex (QRST) is missing.
Incomplete heart block
 Wenckebach phenomenon: progressive increase in AV
nodal delay, resulting in missing of one beat (impulse is
normal or slightly delayed).
 In ECG, the progressive lengthening of P-R interval is
noticed till QRST complex disappears.

 Bundle branch block (BBB): occurs during dysfunction of

right or left branch of bundle of His.
 Impulse from atria reaches unaffected ventricle first and
then to affected parts.
 ECG shows normal ventricular rate, but the QRS complex
is prolonged or deformed.
 Complete heart block (Third degree HB)
 Complete heart block is the condition in which the impulses
produced by SA node cannot reach the ventricles.

 Because of this, the ventricles beat in their own rhythm,

independent of atrial beat (idioventricular rhythm).

 Complete heart block may be due to

 1. AV nodal block (Disease of AV node): the unaffected part
becomes the pacemaker (45-60 beats/min ).

 2. Infranodal block: impulses from SA node are blocked in the

branches of bundle of His (below the level of AV node). The
Purkinje fibers become the pacemaker (35 beats/min).
Complete heart block (Third degree HB)
 Third degree heart block is the serious one since it decreases the
pumping action of the heart.
 Very often, it results in Stokes-Adams syndrome.
 It may also cause heart failure.

 Stokes-Adams syndrome :
 Stokes-Adams syndrome is the sudden attack of dizziness and
unconsciousness caused by heart block.

 It may be accompanied by convulsions also.

 When it occurs, Ectopic pacemaker (AV node, Purkinje fiber or

ventricular muscle) starts functioning only after 5 to 30 seconds.

 Brain is affected with lack of blood supply and oxygen supply

even for 5 seconds
EXTRASYSTOLE
Extrasystole and Compensatory Pause
 Extrasystole is the premature contraction of the heart before its
normal contraction.

 It is caused by an ectopic focus (other than SA node).

 The ectopic focus produces an extra beat of the heart that is

always followed by a compensatory pause.

 Compensatory pause is the period during which the heart stops

in relaxed state.

 Accordingly, extrasystole is divided into three types:

 1. Atrial extrasystole
 2. Nodal extrasystole
 3. Ventricular extrasystole.
EXTRASYSTOLE
 Atrial Extrasystole: premature contraction, stimulus arising
from atrial muscle.
 An extra P wave appears immediately after the regular T
wave.
 P wave is small and shapeless.
 The P-R interval of this beat is short.

 Nodal extrasystole: caused by stimulus arising from AV

node.
 P wave is merged with QRS complex
 All the chambers of the heart contract together
 EXTRASYSTOLE
 Ventricular extrasystole: caused by stimulus from ventricular muscle.
 An extra QRS complex follows the regular T wave.
 This QRS complex is prolonged as the impulse is conducted through
ventricular muscle.
 T wave of this beat is inverted.

 Conditions when Extrasystole Occurs

 Associated with organic diseases of the heart (any ischemic area
of ventricular musculature).
 Other conditions which produce extrasystole:
 i. Emotions
 ii. Severe exhaustion
 iii. Excessive ingestion of coffee or alcohol
 iv. Excessive smoking
 v. Hyperthyroidism
 vi. Reflexes elicited from abnormal viscera
 PAROXYSMAL TACHYCARDIA
 Paroxysmal tachycardia is the sudden attack of increased
heart rate due to ectopic foci arising from atria, AV node or
ventricle.
 Supraventricular tachycardia: Increase in heart rate due to
ectopic foci arising from either atria or AV node.

 Paroxysmal tachycardia lasts for few seconds to hours.

 Symptoms include palpitations, chest pain, rapid breathing

and dizziness.

 Paroxysmal tachycardia is of three types:

 1. Atrial paroxysmal tachycardia
 2. AV nodal paroxysmal tachycardia
 3. Ventricular paroxysmal tachycardia.
PAROXYSMAL TACHYCARDIA
 1. Atrial Paroxysmal Tachycardia: Sudden increase in heart rate
up to 150 to 220/minute
 Ectopic impulses discharged from atrial musculature
 P wave in ECG is inverted, with normal QRST

 2. AV Nodal Paroxysmal Tachycardia: Ectopic foci arising from AV

node due to a temporary block in the conductive system.

 It is common in some healthy persons who have got an additional

conductive system (bundle of kent).

 It also involves circus movement. P wave is mostly absent.

 Bundle of Kent connects the atria and ventricles directly, so the

conduction is very rapid than through the regular conductive system.
Circus movement (Re-entry phenomenom)
 Circus movement is defined as circuitous propagation of
impulses around a structural or functional obstruction.

 This results in re-entry of the impulse and re-excitation of

heart.

 When there is a sudden and temporary block in normal

conductive system.

 Impulses from SA node reach the ventricle through bundle of

Kent,

 This impulses then excite the ventricle and travel back in

opposite direction and later re-enter through the AV node.
PAROXYSMAL TACHYCARDIA
 Forms of AV nodal paroxysmal tachycardia include;
 Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: repeated attacks of AV nodal
paroxysmal tachycardia in persons with bundle of Kent.
 Lown-Ganong-Levin syndrome: abnormal conductive fibers like
bundle of Kent. The re-entered impulses excites the atria and
not the ventricle in bundle of kent.

 3. Ventricular Paroxysmal Tachycardia: is the sudden increase

in heart rate caused by ectopic foci arising from ventricular
musculature.
 This condition is dangerous as the circus movement is
developed within ventricular muscle.
 This circus movement leads to ventricular fibrillation, which is
fatal.
ATRIAL FLUTTER
 Atrial flutter is an arrhythmia characterized by rapid ineffective
atrial contractions, caused by ectopic foci originating from atrial
musculature.

 It is often associated with atrial paroxysmal tachycardia.

 Both the atria beat rapidly like the wings of a bird, hence the name
atrial flutter.

 Atrial rate is about 250 to 350/minute.

 During atrial flutter, the second degree of heart block occurs.

 The ratio between atrial beats and ventricular beats is 2:1

 Prolonged atrial flutter may lead to atrial fibrillation or heart

ATRIAL FIBRILLATION
 Atrial fibrillation is the type of arrhythmia characterized by
rapid and irregular atrial contractions at the rate of 300 to
400 beats/minute.

 It is mostly due to circus movement of impulses within atrial

musculature.
 P wave is absent in ECG.

 Atrial fibrillation is common in old people and patients with

heart diseases.

 Though it is not lifethreatening, it may cause complications.

 If it continues for long time, it may cause blood clot and

blockage of blood flow to vital organs.
VENTRICULAR FIBRILLATION
 Ventricular fibrillation is the dangerous cardiac arrhythmia,
characterized by rapid and irregular twitching of ventricles.

 Ventricles beat very rapidly and irregularly due to the circus

movement of impulses within ventricular muscle.

 The rate reaches 400 to 500/minute.

 This is triggered by ventricular extrasystole.

 It is serious as it leads to death, since the ventricles cannot

pump blood.

 Ventricular fibrillation is very common during electric shock

and during ischemia of conductive system.