Chapter 13

Chapter 13
Theories of Personality
psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright ©2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
Personality
• Personality: the unique and relatively

stable ways in which people think, feel,
and behave
• Character: value judgments made about a
person’s moral and ethical behavior
• Temperament: the enduring
characteristics with which each person is
born
Psychology, Third Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Four Perspectives in Study of Personality
• Psychodynamic perspective
• Behaviorist perspective
• Humanistic perspective
• Trait perspective
Sigmund Freud
Freud’s View of the Mind, and Psychodynamic Theory
• Freud was the founder of the

psychoanalytic movement in psychology
• Europe during the Victorian Age
– men were supposedly unable to control their “animal”
desires; a good Victorian husband would father
several children with his wife and then turn to a
mistress for sexual comfort, leaving his virtuous wife
untouched
– women were not supposed to have sexual urges
Divisions of Consciousness
• Preconscious mind: level of the mind in

which information is available but not
currently conscious
• Conscious mind: level of the mind that is
aware of immediate surroundings and
perceptions
Divisions of Consciousness
• Unconscious mind: level of the mind in

which thoughts, feelings, memories, and
other information that are not easily or
voluntarily brought into consciousness are
kept
– can be revealed in dreams and Freudian slips
of the tongue
Freud’s Conception of the Personality
This iceberg represents the three levels of the mind. The part of the iceberg visible above the surface
is the conscious mind. Just below the surface is the preconscious mind, everything that is not yet part
of the conscious mind. Hidden deep below the surface is the unconscious mind, feelings, memories,
thoughts, and urges that cannot be easily brought into consciousness. While two of the three parts of
the personality (ego and superego) exist at all three levels of awareness, the id is completely in the
unconscious mind.
Freud’s Theory: Parts of Personality
• Id: part of the personality present at birth;

completely unconscious
– libido: the instinctual energy that may come
into conflict with the demands of a society’s
standards for behavior
– pleasure principle: principle by which the id
functions; the immediate satisfaction of needs
without regard for the consequences
• Ego: part of the personality that develops

out of a need to deal with reality; mostly
conscious, rational, and logical
– reality principle: principle by which the ego
functions; the satisfaction of the demands of
the id only when negative consequences will
not result
• Superego: part of the personality that acts

as a moral center
– ego ideal: part of the superego that contains
the standards for moral behavior
– conscience: part of the superego that
produces pride or guilt, depending on how
well behavior matches or does not match the
ego ideal
Defense Mechanisms
Psychological defense mechanisms:

unconscious distortions of a person’s
perception of reality that reduce stress and
anxiety
• Denial: the person refuses to acknowledge
or recognize a threatening situation
Defense Mechanisms
• Repression: the person refuses to

consciously remember a threatening or
unacceptable event, instead pushing those
events into the unconscious mind
• Rationalization: the person invents
acceptable excuses for unacceptable
behavior
Defense Mechanisms
• Projection: unacceptable or threatening

impulses or feelings are seen as
originating with someone else, usually the
target of the impulses or feelings
Psychological projection is a theory in psychology in
which humans defend themselves against their own
unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and
negative) by denying their existence in themselves
while attributing them to others. For example, a person
who is habitually rude may constantly accuse other
people of being rude. It incorporates blame shifting.
Defense Mechanisms
• Reaction formation: the person forms an

emotional or behavioral reaction opposite
to the way he or she really feels in order to
keep those true feelings hidden from self
and others
• Displacement: redirecting feelings from a
threatening target to a less threatening
one
Defense Mechanisms
LO 13.2 Freud’s Historical Views of Personality
• Regression: the person falls back on

childlike patterns of responding in reaction
to stressful situations
• Identification: the person tries to become
like someone else to deal with anxiety
Defense Mechanisms
• Compensation (substitution): the person

makes up for deficiencies in one area by
becoming superior in another area
• Sublimation: channeling socially
unacceptable impulses and urges into
socially acceptable behavior
Freud’s Theory:
Stages of Personality Development
• Psychosexual stages: five stages of

personality development proposed by
Freud and tied to the sexual development
of the child
• Fixation: if the person does not fully resolve the
conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, it will
result in personality traits and behaviors
associated with that earlier stage
Freud’s Theory:
1 - Oral stage: first stage, occurring in the first year
of life, in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and
weaning is the primary conflict; id dominated
Freud’s Theory:
2 - Anal stage: second stage, occurring

between about one and three years of age;
the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet
training is the source of conflict; ego
develops
– anal expulsive personality: a person fixated in the
anal stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile
– anal retentive personality: a person fixated in the
anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and
stubborn
Freud’s Theory:
3 - Phallic stage: third stage, occurring from

about three to six years of age; the child
discovers sexual feelings; superego develops
– Oedipus complex: situation occurring in the
phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual
attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy
of the same-sex parent
– Electra complex: a similar process for girls
Freud’s Theory:
4 - Latency stage: fourth stage occurring

during the school years, in which the sexual
feelings of the child are repressed while the
child develops in other ways
5 - Genital stage: during and after puberty,
sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate
targets
Neo-Freudians
• Neo-Freudians: followers of Freud who

developed their own competing theories of
psychoanalysis
Neo-Freudians
• Jung: developed a theory including both a
personal and a collective unconscious
– personal unconscious: Jung’s name for the
unconscious mind as described by Freud
– collective unconscious: the memories shared by
all members of the human species
– archetypes: collective, universal human memories
Neo-Freudians: Alder
Adler
• Proposed that feelings of inferiority are the
driving force behind personality
• Developed birth order theory
– firstborn children feel inferior to younger children who
receive attention; become overachievers
– middle children feel superior to dethroned older
children, as well as younger children; tend to be very
competitive
– younger children feel inferior because they don’t have
the freedom or responsibility of older children
Neo-Freudians: Horney
Horney
• Developed a theory based on basic
anxiety; rejected the concept of penis envy
– basic anxiety: anxiety created when a child is
born into the bigger and more powerful world
of older children and adults
– neurotic personalities: the result of less-
secure upbringings and paired with
maladaptive ways of dealing with
relationships
Neo-Freudians: Erikson
Erikson developed a theory based on social rather
than sexual relationships, covering the entire life
span
Modern Psychoanalytic Theory
• Current research has found support for:

– defense mechanisms
– the concept of an unconscious mind that can
influence conscious behavior
• Other Freudian concepts cannot be
scientifically researched
– Freud based diagnosis on interpretation of
dreams and free association
The Behaviorist View
• Behaviorists define personality as a set of
learned responses or habits
– habit: well-learned response that has become
automatic
The Social Cognitive View
• Social cognitive learning theorists

emphasize the importance of:
– the influences of other people’s behavior
– the influence of a person’s own expectancies
on learning
• Social cognitive view: learning theory that
includes cognitive processes such as
anticipating, judging, memory, and
imitation of models
Reciprocal Determinism
• Reciprocal determinism: Bandura’s

explanation of how the factors of
environment, personal characteristics, and
behavior can interact to determine future
behavior
• Self-efficacy: an individual’s perception of
how effective a behavior will be in any
particular circumstance (not the same as
self-esteem)
Reciprocal Determinism
In Bandura’s model of reciprocal determinism, three factors influence behavior: the
environment, which consists of the physical surroundings and the potential for
reinforcement; the person (personal/cognitive characteristics that have been rewarded in
the past); and the behavior itself, which may or may not be reinforced at this particular
time and place.
Behaviorism and Personality
• Rotter’s Social Learning Theory

– locus of control
– expectancy
• Behaviorism as an explanation of the
formation of personality has its limitations
Humanistic Theories of Personality
LO 13.5 How Humanists Explain Personality
• Humanistic perspective: the “third force”

in psychology
– focuses on those aspects of personality that
make people uniquely human, such as
subjective feelings and freedom of choice
– developed as a reaction against the negativity
of psychoanalysis and the deterministic
nature of behaviorism
Rogers’s Theory of Personality
• Self-actualizing tendency: the striving to
fulfill one’s innate capacities and
capabilities
• Self-concept: the image of oneself that
develops from interactions with important,
significant people in one’s life
– self-archetype that works with the ego to manage
other archetypes and balance the personality.
FYI: An archetype is something that serves as a model or a basis
for making copies.
LO 13.5 How Humanists Explain Personality
• Real self: one’s perception of actual

characteristics, traits, and abilities
• Ideal self: one’s perception of whom one
should be or would like to be
• Ideally these would match.
Real and Ideal Selves
According to Rogers, the self-concept includes the real self and the ideal self. The real
self is a person’s actual perception of traits and abilities, whereas the ideal self is the
perception of what a person would like to be or thinks he or she should be. When the
ideal self and the real self are very similar (matching), the person experiences harmony
and contentment. When there is a mismatch between the two selves, the person
experiences anxiety and may engage in neurotic behavior.
• Positive regard: warmth, affection, love,

and respect that come from significant
others in one’s life
– unconditional positive regard: positive regard
that is given without conditions or strings
attached
– conditional positive regard: positive regard
that is given only when the person is doing
what the providers of positive regard wish
• Fully functioning person: a person who is

in touch with and trusting of the deepest,
innermost urges and feelings
• Current thought on the humanistic
perspective
– picture is a little too rosy
– very difficult to test scientifically
– connection to “positive psychology”
Trait Theories of Personality
• Trait theories: theories that endeavor to

describe the characteristics that make up
human personality in an effort to predict
future behavior
– trait: a consistent, enduring way of thinking,
feeling, or behaving
• Allport first developed a list of about 200

traits; he believed that these traits were
part of the nervous system
• Cattell reduced the number of traits to

between sixteen and twenty-three with a
computer method called factor analysis
– developed the 16PF test
• Surface traits: aspects of personality that

can easily be seen by other people in the
outward actions of a person
• Source traits: the more basic traits that
underlie the surface traits, forming the
core of personality
– example: introversion
 dimension of personality in which people tend to
withdraw from excessive stimulation
Cattell’s Self-Report Inventory
The personality profiles of individuals working in various occupations may be
characterized by using such tools as Cattell’s 16PF self-report inventory. For
example, airline pilots versus writers. Airline pilots, when compared to writers,
tend to be more conscientious, relaxed, self-assured, and far less sensitive.
Writers, on the other hand, were more imaginative and better able to think
abstractly. Based on Cattell (1973).
The Big Five Theory
• Five-factor model (Big Five): describes five
basic trait dimensions
1. openness: willingness to try new things and be
open to new experiences
2. conscientiousness: the care a person gives to
organization and thoughtfulness of others;
dependability
3. extraversion: one’s need to be with other people
 extraverts: people who are outgoing and sociable
 introverts: people who prefer solitude and dislike being
the center of attention
The Big Five Theory
• Five-Factor Model (Big Five) (cont’d)

4. agreeableness: the emotional style of a
person that may range from easygoing,
friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and
unpleasant
5. neuroticism: degree of emotional instability or
stability
Trait Theories Today
• Cross-cultural research has found support

for the five-factor model of personality
traits in a number of different cultures
– future research will explore the degree to
which childrearing practices and heredity may
influence the five personality factors
Trait Theories Today
• Trait-situation interaction: the particular

circumstances of any given situation will
influence the way in which a trait is
expressed
Biology and Personality
• Behavioral genetics: the study of the
relationship between heredity and
personality
– twin and adoption studies have found support
for a genetic influence on many personality
traits
– Heritability: how much some trait within a
population can be attributed to genetic
influences, and the extent individual genetic
variation impacts differences in observed
behavior
Personalities of Identical and Fraternal Twins
Identical and fraternal twins differ in the way they express the Big Five personality factors. The
scores of identical twins have a correlation of about 50 percent, whereas those of fraternal twins
have a correlation of only about 15 to 20 percent. These findings give support to the idea that
some aspects of personality are genetically based.
Source: Loehlin (1992)
Cultural Personality
• Four basic dimensions of personality along

which cultures may vary:
– individualism/collectivism
– power distance
– masculinity/femininity
– uncertainty avoidance
Measuring Personality: Interviews
Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Measures of Personality
• Interview: personality assessment in which

the professional asks questions of the
client and allows the client to answer,
either in a structured or unstructured
fashion
– halo effect: tendency of an interviewer to
allow positive characteristics of a client to
influence the assessments of the client’s
behavior and statements
Measuring Personality: Projective Tests
• Projection: defense mechanism involving

placing, or “projecting,” one’s own
unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if the
thoughts actually belonged to those others and
not to oneself
• Projective tests: personality assessments
that present ambiguous visual stimuli to
the client and ask the client to respond
with whatever comes to mind
• Rorschach inkblot test: projective test that

uses ten inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

projective test that uses twenty pictures of
people in ambiguous situations as the
visual stimuli
Rorschach Inkblot Example
A facsimile of a Rorschach inkblot. A person being tested is asked to tell the
interviewer what he or she sees in an inkblot similar to the one shown. Answers
are neither right nor wrong but may reveal unconscious concerns. What do you
see in this inkblot?
Thematic Apperception
Test Example A sample from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). When you look at
this picture, what story does it suggest to you? Who is the person? Why is he climbing a
rope?
Problems with projective tests

• Subjective: concepts and impressions that
are only valid within a particular person’s
perception and may be influenced by biases,
prejudice, and personal experiences
•With no standard grading scales, projective
tests are low in reliability and validity
Measuring Personality: Behavioral Assessments
• Direct observation: the professional

observes the client engaged in ordinary,
day-to-day behavior in either a clinical or
natural setting
• Rating scale: a numerical value is assigned
to specific behavior that is listed in the scale
• Frequency count: assessment in which the
frequency of a particular behavior is
counted
Measuring Personality: Personality Inventory
• Personality inventory: paper and pencil or

computerized test that consists of
statements that require a specific,
standardized response from the person
taking the test
– NEO-PI: based on the five-factor model
– Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: based on Jung’s
theory of personality types
– MMPI-2 - designed to detect abnormal behavior
or thinking patterns in personality
The End Chapter 13
Theories of Personality
psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright ©2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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Chapter 13

• Personality: the unique and relatively

• Freud was the founder of the

• Preconscious mind: level of the mind in

• Unconscious mind: level of the mind in

• Id: part of the personality present at birth;

• Ego: part of the personality that develops

• Superego: part of the personality that acts

Psychological defense mechanisms:

• Repression: the person refuses to

• Projection: unacceptable or threatening

• Reaction formation: the person forms an

• Regression: the person falls back on

• Compensation (substitution): the person

• Psychosexual stages: five stages of

2 - Anal stage: second stage, occurring

3 - Phallic stage: third stage, occurring from

4 - Latency stage: fourth stage occurring

• Neo-Freudians: followers of Freud who

• Current research has found support for:

• Social cognitive learning theorists

• Reciprocal determinism: Bandura’s

• Rotter’s Social Learning Theory

• Humanistic perspective: the “third force”

• Real self: one’s perception of actual

• Ideally these would match.

• Positive regard: warmth, affection, love,

• Fully functioning person: a person who is

• Trait theories: theories that endeavor to

• Allport first developed a list of about 200

• Cattell reduced the number of traits to

• Surface traits: aspects of personality that

• Five-Factor Model (Big Five) (cont’d)

• Cross-cultural research has found support

• Trait-situation interaction: the particular

• Four basic dimensions of personality along

• Interview: personality assessment in which

• Projection: defense mechanism involving

• Rorschach inkblot test: projective test that

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

Problems with projective tests

• Direct observation: the professional

• Personality inventory: paper and pencil or

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