Rules of Mixture

for Elastic Properties

'Rules of Mixtures' are mathematical
expressions which give some property of
the composite in terms of the properties,
quantity and arrangement of its
constituents.

They may be based on a number of

simplifying assumptions, and their use in
design should tempered with extreme
caution!
 Density
For a general composite, total volume V,
containing masses of constituents Ma, Mb, Mc,...
the composite density is
Ma Mb Mc ... Ma Mb
...
V V V
In terms of the densities and volumes of the
constituents:

v a a v b b v c c
...
V V V
 Density
But va / V = Va is the volume fraction of the
constituent a, hence:
Va a Vb b Vc c ...

For the special case of a fibre-reinforced matrix:

Vf f Vm m Vf f (1 Vf ) m Vf ( f m ) m

since Vf + Vm = 1
 Rule of mixtures density for
glass/epoxy composites
3000

2500 f
2000
kg/m 3

1500

1000
m
500

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
fibre volume fraction
Micromechanical models for stiffness
 Unidirectional ply
Unidirectional fibres are the simplest
arrangement of fibres to analyse.
They provide maximum properties in the
fibre direction, but minimum properties in
the transverse direction.
fibre direction

transverse
direction
 Unidirectional ply
We expect the unidirectional composite to
have different tensile moduli in different
directions.
These properties may be labelled in
several different ways:
E1, E||

E2, E
 Unidirectional ply
By convention, the principal axes of the ply are
labelled 1, 2, 3. This is used to denote the fact
that ply may be aligned differently from the
cartesian axes x, y, z.

1
2
 Unidirectional ply - longitudinal
tensile modulus
We make the following assumptions in
developing a rule of mixtures:
Fibres are uniform, parallel and continuous.
Perfect bonding between fibre and matrix.
Longitudinal load produces equal strain in fibre and matrix.
 Unidirectional ply - longitudinal
tensile modulus
A load applied in the fibre direction is shared
between fibre and matrix:
F1 = F f + F m
The stresses depend on the cross-sectional
areas of fibre and matrix:
1A = fAf + mAm
where A (= Af + Am) is the total cross-sectional
area of the ply
 Unidirectional ply - longitudinal
tensile modulus
Applying Hookes law:
E11 A = Eff Af + Emm Am
where Poisson contraction has been ignored

But the strain in fibre, matrix and composite

are the same, so
1 = f = m, and:

E1 A = E f Af + E m Am
 Unidirectional ply - longitudinal
tensile modulus
Dividing through by area A:
E1 = Ef (Af / A) + Em (Am / A)

But for the unidirectional ply, (Af / A) and (Am /

A) are the same as volume fractions Vf and Vm
= 1-Vf. Hence:

E1 = Ef Vf + Em (1-Vf)
 Unidirectional ply - longitudinal
tensile modulus

E1 = Ef Vf + Em ( 1-Vf )

Note the similarity to the rules of mixture

expression for density.

In polymer composites, Ef >> Em, so

E 1 Ef Vf
 Rule of mixtures tensile modulus
(glass fibre/polyester)

60
tensile modulus (GPa)

50
40 UD
30 biaxial
20 CSM
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
fibre volume fraction

Rule of mixtures tensile modulus

(T300 carbon fibre)

200
tensile modulus (GPa)

150
UD
100 biaxial
quasi-isotropic
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
fibre volume fraction
This rule of
mixtures is a
good fit to
experimental
data
(source: Hull, Introduction
to Composite Materials,
CUP)
 Unidirectional ply -
transverse tensile modulus
For the transverse stiffness, a load is applied at right angles to the fibres.

The model is very much simplified, and the fibres are lumped together:

L2
matrix

fibre
Lm Lf
 Unidirectional ply -
transverse tensile modulus

2 2

It is assumed that the stress is the

same in each component (2 = f = m).
Poisson contraction effects are ignored.
 Unidirectional ply -
transverse tensile modulus

2 2

Lm Lf

The total extension is 2 = f + m, so the

strain is given by:
2L2 = fLf + mLm
so that 2 = f (Lf / L2) + m (Lm / L2)
 Unidirectional ply -
transverse tensile modulus

2 2

Lm Lf

But Lf / L2 = Vf and Lm / L2 = Vm = 1-Vf

So 2 = f Vf + m (1-Vf)
and 2 / E2 = f Vf / Ef + m (1-Vf) / Em
 Unidirectional ply -
transverse tensile modulus

2 2

Lm Lf

But 2 = f = m, so that:

1 Vf (1 Vf ) Ef E m
or E2
E 2 Ef Em EmVf Ef (1 Vf )
 Rule of mixtures - transverse modulus
(glass/epoxy)

16
14
12
10
E2 (GPa)

4
6
If Ef >> Em,
2
0 E2 Em / (1-Vf)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
fibre volume fraction

Note that E2 is not particularly sensitive to Vf.

If Ef >> Em, E2 is almost independent of fibre
property:
 Rule of mixtures - transverse modulus

16
14 carbon/epoxy
12
10
E2 (GPa)

8
6
4
glass/epoxy
2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
fibre volume fraction

The transverse modulus is dominated by

the matrix, and is virtually independent
of the reinforcement.
The transverse rule
of mixtures is not
particularly
accurate, due to the
simplifications made
- Poisson effects are
not negligible, and
the strain
distribution is not
uniform:

(source: Hull, Introduction to Composite

Materials, CUP)
 Unidirectional ply -
transverse tensile modulus
Many theoretical studies have been
undertaken to develop better
micromechanical models (eg the semi-
empirical Halpin-Tsai equations).
A simple improvement for transverse
modulus is
Ef Em Em
E2 where Em
Em Vf Ef (1 Vf ) 1 m2
 Generalised rule of mixtures for
tensile modulus

E = L o Ef Vf + Em (1-Vf )
L is a length correction factor. Typically, L 1
for fibres longer than about 10 mm.

o corrects for non-unidirectional reinforcement:

o
unidirectional 1.0
biaxial 0.5
biaxial at 45o 0.25
random (in-plane) 0.375
random (3D) 0.2
 Theoretical Orientation Correction Factor

o = icos4 i
Where the summation is carried out over all the different orientations present in the reinforcement. i is the
proportion of all fibres with orientation i.

E.g. in a 45o bias fabric,

o = 0.5 cos4 (45o) + 0.5 cos4 (-45o)
Assuming that the fibre path in a plain woven
fabric is sinusoidal, a further correction factor
can be derived for non-straight fibres:
 Theoretical length correction factor
tanh L / 2 8Gm
L 1
L / 2 E f D2 ln 2R D

1
0.9
0.8
length correction factor
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Theoretical length correction 0.1
factor for glass fibre/epoxy, 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
assuming inter-fibre
separation of 20 D. fibre length (mm)
 Stiffness of short fibre composites
For aligned short fibre composites (difficult to
achieve in polymers!), the rule of mixtures for
modulus in the fibre direction is:
E LEfVf Em( 1 Vf )
The length correction factor (L) can be derived
theoretically. Provided L > 1 mm, L > 0.9

For composites in which fibres are not perfectly

aligned the full rule of mixtures expression is used,
incorporating both L and o.
In short fibre-reinforced thermosetting polymer composites, it
is reasonable to assume that the fibres are always well above
their critical length, and that the elastic properties are
determined primarily by orientation effects.
The following equations give reasonably accurate estimates
for the isotropic in-plane elastic constants:

E E1 E 2
3
8
5
8

G 81 E1 41 E 2

E
1
2G
where E1 and E2 are the UD values
calculated earlier
 Rule of mixtures tensile modulus
(glass fibre/polyester)

60
tensile modulus (GPa)

50
40 UD
30 biaxial
20 CSM
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
fibre volume fraction

Rule of mixtures tensile modulus

(T300 carbon fibre)

200
tensile modulus (GPa)

150
UD
100 biaxial
quasi-isotropic
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
fibre volume fraction
Rules of mixture
properties for
CSM-polyester
laminates

Larsson & Eliasson,

Principles of Yacht Design
Rules of mixture
properties for
glass woven
roving-polyester
laminates

Larsson & Eliasson,

Principles of Yacht Design
 Other rules of mixtures
Shear modulus: 1 Vf (1 Vf )

G12 Gf Gm

Poissons ratio: 12 fVf m (1 Vf )

Thermal expansion:

1
1 ( f EfVf mEm 1 Vf )
E1
2 fVf (1 f ) m (1 Vf )(1 m ) 1 12