Basic Biomechanical

Factors & Concepts

2007 McGraw-Hill 3-1

 Biomechanics

Biomechanics - study of the

mechanics as it relates to the
functional and anatomical analysis
of biological systems and
especially humans
Necessary to study the bodys
mechanical characteristics &
principles to understand its
movements

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 Biomechanics

Mechanics - study of physical

actions of forces
Mechanics is divided into
Statics
Dynamics

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 Biomechanics

Statics - study of systems that are

in a constant state of motion,
whether at rest with no motion or
moving at a constant velocity
without acceleration
Statics involves all forces acting on
the body being in balance resulting in
the body being in equilibrium

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 Biomechanics

Dynamics - study of systems in

motion with acceleration
A system in acceleration is
unbalanced due to unequal forces
acting on the body

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 Biomechanics

Kinematics & kinetics

Kinematics - description of motion
and includes consideration of time,
displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and space factors of a systems
motion
Kinetics - study of forces associated
with the motion of a body

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 Types of machines found in the
body
Mechanical advantage
Load/effort or load divided by effort
Ideally using a relatively small force, or effort to
move a much greater resistance
Musculoskeletal system may be thought of as
a series of simple machines
Machines - used to increase mechanical
advantage
Consider mechanical aspect of each component in
analysis with respect to components machine-like
function

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 Types of machines found in the
body
Machines function in four ways
balance multiple forces
enhance force in an attempt to reduce total
force needed to overcome a resistance
enhance range of motion & speed of
movement so that resistance may be
moved further or faster than applied force
alter resulting direction of the applied force

2007 McGraw-Hill 3-8

 Types of machines found in the
body
Musculoskeletel system arrangement
provides for 3 types of machines in
producing movement
Levers (most common)
Wheel-axles
Pulleys

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 Levers

Humans moves through a system of

levers
Levers cannot be changed, but they
can be utilized more efficiently
lever - a rigid bar that turns about an axis
of rotation or a fulcrum
axis - point of rotation about which lever
moves

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 Levers

Levers rotate about an axis as a result

of force (effort, E) being applied to
cause its movement against a
resistance or weight
In the body
bones represent the bars
joints are the axes
muscles contract to apply force

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 Levers

Resistance can vary from maximal to

minimal
May be only the bones or weight of body
segment
All lever systems have each of these
three components in one of three
possible arrangements

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 Levers

Three points determine type of lever &

for which kind of motion it is best suited
Axis (A)- fulcrum - the point of rotation
Point (F) of force application (usually
muscle insertion)
Point (R) of resistance application (center
of gravity of lever) or (location of an
external resistance)

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 Levers
1st class lever axis (A) between
force (F) & resistance (R)
2nd class lever resistance (R)
between axis (A) & force (F)
3rd class lever force (F)
between axis (A) & resistance Modified from Hall SJL Basic

(R) biomechanics, ed 4, 2003, McGraw-

Hill.

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 Levers
FAR | Force Arm || Resistance Arm |

1st F R
A
ARF | Resistance Arm |
| Force Arm |
2nd
R F
A
| Force Arm |
AFR | Resistance Arm |
3rd F R
A
2007 McGraw-Hill 3-
 Stair & Obstacle Negotiation

2007 McGraw-Hill
Reserve Capacity Reactive vs. Proactive Fall Risk 3-
 2007 McGraw-Hill
Courtesy NeuroCom International, Inc. 3-
 Voluntary Motor:
Limits of Stability (LOS)
Balance is maintenance
of the COG over the
base of support
LOS is the maximum
COG distance from
center remaining within
the base of support
LOS extends
approximately 12 front
to back & 16 side to
side

Courtesy NeuroCom International, Inc.

2007 McGraw-Hill 3-
 Generation of
Body Movement

ANKLE STRATEGY
Head & hips move in
same direction
Slow/small
perturbation
Surface firm, broad,
wider than feet
Contractions distal to
proximal

Sensory Organization Test, courtesy NeuroCom International, Inc.

2007 McGraw-Hill 3-
 Generation of
Body Movement

HIP STRATEGY
Head & hips move in
opposite direction
Large/fast
perturbation
Surface unstable or
shorter than feet
Contractions
proximal to distal

Sensory Organization Test, courtesy NeuroCom International, Inc.

2007 McGraw-Hill 3-
 Levers
The mechanical advantage of levers may be
determined using the following equations:
Mechanical advantage =
Resistance
Force
or
Mechanical advantage =
Length of force arm
Length of resistance arm

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 Newton-Metre
Conversion factors
1 joule = 1 Nm
1 newton metre = 0.7375621 foot-pound force
(often "foot-pound")
1 metre kilogram-force = 9.80665 Nm
1 centimetre kilogram-force = 98.0665 mNm
1 foot-pound force (often "foot-pounds") = 1
pound-force foot (often "pound-feet") =
1.3558179 Nm
1 inch ounce-force = 7.0615518 mNm
1 dyne centimetre = 107 Nm
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 Knee Joint and MA

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 Elbow Joint and MA

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 First-class Levers
Produce balanced movements
when axis is midway between
force & resistance (e.g., seesaw)
Produce speed & range of motion
when axis is close to force,
(triceps in elbow extension)
Produce force motion when axis
is close to resistance (crowbar)
Modified from Hall SJ: Basic
biomechanics, ed 4, 2003,
McGraw-Hill

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 First-class Levers
Head balanced on neck in
flexing/extending
Agonist & antagonist muscle
groups are contracting
simultaneously on either side of a
joint axis Modified from Booher JM,
Thibodeau GA: Athletic injury
assessment, ed 4, 2000,
agonist produces force while McGraw-Hill

antagonist supplies resistance

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 First-class Levers
Elbow extension in triceps applying
force to olecranon (F) in extending the
non-supported forearm (R) at the
elbow (A)

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 First-class Levers
Force is applied where muscle inserts in
bone, not in belly of muscle
Ex. in elbow extension with shoulder fully
flexed & arm beside the ear, the triceps
applies force to the olecranon of ulna
behind the axis of elbow joint
As the applied force exceeds the amount
of forearm resistance, the elbow extends

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 First Class Lever
A lever in which the
muscular force and
resistance force act
on opposite sides of
the fulcrum

* A see-saw

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 Second-class Levers
Produces force movements,
since a large resistance can be
moved by a relatively small force
Wheelbarrow
Nutcracker
Loosening a lug nut
Raising the body up on the toes
Modified from Hall SJ: Basic
biomechanics, ed 4, 2003,
McGraw-Hill

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 Second Class Lever
A lever in which the
muscular force and
resistance force act
on the same side of
the fulcrum, but the
resistance force acts
at a point closer to
the fulcrum than the
muscular force

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 Second-class Levers
Plantar flexion of foot to raise the
body up on the toes where ball (A)
of the foot serves as the axis as
ankle plantar flexors apply force to
the calcaneus (F) to lift the
resistance of the body at the tibial
articulation (R) with the foot
Relatively few 2nd class levers in
body Modified from Booher JM,
Thibodeau GA: Athletic injury
assessment, ed 4, 2000,
McGraw-Hill

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 Third-class Levers
Produce speed & range-of-motion
movements
Most common in human body
Requires a great deal of force to move
even a small resistance
Paddling a boat
Shoveling - application of lifting force to a
shovel handle with lower hand while upper
hand on shovel handle serves as axis of
rotation Modified from Hall SJ: Basic
biomechanics, ed 4, 2003,
McGraw-Hill

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 Third-class Levers
Biceps brachii in elbow flexion
Using the elbow joint (A) as the
axis, the biceps brachii applies
force at its insertion on radial
tuberosity (F) to rotate forearm up,
with its center of gravity (R) serving Modified from Booher JM,

as the point of resistance Thibodeau GA: Athletic injury

assessment, ed 4, 2000,
McGraw-Hill

application

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 Third-class Levers
Brachialis - true 3rd class leverage
pulls on ulna just below elbow
pull is direct & true since ulna cannot rotate
Biceps brachii supinates forearm as it flexes
so its 3rd class leverage applies to flexion only
Other examples
hamstrings contracting to flex leg at knee while in a
standing position
using iliopsoas to flex thigh at hip

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 Third Class Lever
A lever in which the
muscular force and
resistance force act
on the same side of
the fulcrum, but the
muscular force acts
at a point closer to
the fulcrum than the
resistance force

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 Factors in use of anatomical
levers
Anatomical leverage system can be
used to gain a mechanical advantage
Improve simple or complex physical
movements
Some habitually use human levers
properly
Some develop habits of improperly
using human levers
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Torque (moment of force) the turning
effect of an eccentric force
Eccentric force - force applied in a
direction not in line with the center of
rotation of an object with a fixed axis
In objects without a fixed axis it is an applied
force that is not in line with object's center of
gravity
For rotation to occur an eccentric force
must be applied
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
In humans, contracting muscle applies
an eccentric force (not to be confused
with eccentric contraction) to bone upon
which it attaches & causes the bone to
rotate about an axis at the joint
Amount of torque is determined by
multiplying amount of force (force
magnitude) by force arm

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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Force arm - perpendicular distance
between location of force application &
axis
a.k.a. moment arm or torque arm
shortest distance from axis of rotation to
the line of action of the force
the greater the distance of force arm, the
more torque produced by the force

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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Often, we purposely increase force arm
length in order to increase torque so
that we can more easily move a
relatively large resistance (increasing
our leverage)
Resistance arm - distance between the
axis and the point of resistance
application

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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Inverse relationship between length of
the two lever arms
Between force & force arm
Between resistance & resistance arm
The longer the force arm, the less force
required to move the lever if the resistance
& resistance arm remain constant
Shortening the resistance arm allows a
greater resistance to be moved if force &
force arm remain constant
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Proportional relationship between force
components & resistance components
If either of the resistance components
increase, there must be an increase in one
or both of force components
Greater resistance or resistance arm
requires greater force or longer force arm
Greater force or force arm allows a greater
amount of resistance to be moved or a
longer resistance arm to be used

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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Even slight variations
in the location of the
force and resistance
are important in
determining the
effective force of the
muscle

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 Torque and length of lever
arms

First class levers

A, If the force arm & resistance arm are
equal in length, a force equal to the
resistance is required to balance it;
B, As the force arm becomes longer, a
decreasing amount of force is required to
move a relatively larger resistance;
C, As the force arm becomes shorter, an
increasing amount of force is required to
more a relatively smaller resistance
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 Torque and length of lever
arms

Second class levers

A, Placing the resistance halfway between
the axis & the point of force application
provides a MA of 2;
B, Moving the resistance closer to the axis
increases the MA, but decreases the
distance that the resistance is moved;
C, the closer the resistance is positioned to
the point of force application the less of a
MA, but the greater the distance it is moved
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 Torque and length of lever
arms

Third class levers

A, a force greater than the resistance,
regardless of the point of force application, is
required due to the resistance arm always
being longer;
B, Moving the point of force application closer
to the axis increases the range of motion &
speed;
C, Moving the point of force application closer
to the resistance decreases the force needed
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
A 0.05 meter
EXAMPLE: biceps brachii
increase in F x FA = R x RA
insertion
results in a (force) x (force arm) = (resistance) x (resistance arm)
substantial F x 0.1 meters = 45 Newtons x 0.25 meters
reduction in
the force
F = 112.5 Newton-meters
necessary to Increase insertion by 0.05 meters
move the
resistance
F x 0.15 meters = 45 Newtons x 0.25 meters
F = 75 Newton-meters
| RA = 0.25 meters ||0.1 m| | RA = 0.25 meters | | 0.15m |

R F R F
A A
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
EXAMPLE: biceps brachii
A 0.05 meter F x FA = R x RA
reduction in
resistance (force) x (force arm) = (resistance) x (resistance arm)
arm can F x 0.1 meters = 45 Newtons x 0.25 meters
reduce the
force F = 112.5 Newton-meters
necessary to Decrease resistance arm by 0.05 meters
move the
F x 0.1 meters = 45 Newtons x 0.2 meters
resistance
F = 90 Newton-meters
| RA = 0.25 meters || 0.1m | | RA = 0.2 meters || 0.1m |

R F R F
A A
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
EXAMPLE: biceps brachii
F x FA = R x RA
Reducing
resistance (force) x (force arm) = (resistance) x (resistance arm)
reduces the F x 0.1 meters = 45 Newtons x 0.25 meters
amount of
force F = 112.5 Newton-meters
needed to Decrease resistance by 1 Newton
move the F x 0.1 meters = 44 Newtons x 0.25 meters
lever
F = 110 Newton-meters
| RA = 0.25 meters ||0.1 m| | RA = 0.25 meters ||0.1 m|

R F R F
A A
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Human leverage system is built for
speed & range of movement at expense
of force
Short force arms & long resistance
arms require great muscular strength to
produce movement
Ex. biceps & triceps attachments
biceps force arm is 1 to 2 inches
triceps force arm less than 1 inch

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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Human leverage for sport skills requires
several levers
throwing a ball involves levers at shoulder,
elbow, & wrist joints
The longer the lever, the more effective
it is in imparting velocity
A tennis player can hit a tennis ball harder
with a straight-arm drive than with a bent
elbow because the lever (including the
racket) is longer & moves at a faster speed
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 Torque and length of lever
arms
Long levers produce more linear force
and thus better performance in some
sports such as baseball, hockey, golf,
field hockey, etc.

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 Torque and length of lever
arms
For quickness, it is desirable to have a
short lever arm
baseball catcher brings his hand back to
his ear to secure a quick throw
sprinter shortens his knee lever through
flexion that he almost catches his spikes in
his gluteal muscles

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 Laws of motion and physical
activities
Body motion is produced or started by
some action of muscular system
Motion cannot occur without a force
Muscular system is source of force in
humans
Two types of motion
linear motion
angular motion

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 Laws of motion and physical
activities
Linear motion (translatory motion) -
motion along a line
rectilinear motion - motion along a straight
line
curvilinear motion - motion along a curved
line
Linear displacement - distance that a
system moves in a straight line

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 Laws of motion and physical
activities
Angular motion (rotary motion) - rotation
around an axis
In the body, the axis of rotation is provided
by the various joints
Linear & angular motion are related
angular motion of the joints produces the
linear motion of walking

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 Laws of motion and physical
activities
Sports ex. - cumulative angular motion
of the joints imparts linear motion to a
thrown object (ball, shot) or to an object
struck with an instrument (bat, racket)

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 Laws of motion and physical
activities
Displacement - actual distance that the
object has been displaced from its
original point of reference
Distance - actual sum length of
measurement traveled
object may have traveled a distance of 10
meters along a linear path in two or more
directions but only be displaced from its
original reference point by 6 meters

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 Laws of motion and physical
activities
Angular displacement - change in
location of a rotating body
Linear displacement - distance that a
system moves in a straight line
Speed - how fast an object is moving or
distance that an object moves in a
specific amount of time
Velocity - includes the direction &
describes the rate of displacement
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 Laws of motion and physical
activities
Newton's laws of motion have many
applications to physical education
activities and sports

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 Law of Inertia

A body in motion tends to remain in

motion at the same speed in a
straight line unless acted on by a
force; a body at rest tends to remain
at rest unless acted on by a force
Muscles produce force to start, stop,
accelerate, decelerate & change the
direction of motion

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 Law of Inertia

Inertia - resistance to action or change

In human movement, inertia refers to
resistance to acceleration or deceleration
tendency for the current state of motion to
be maintained, regardless of whether the
body segment is moving at a particular
velocity or is motionless
the reluctance to change status; only force
can change status

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 Law of Inertia
The greater an objects mass, the greater its
inertia
the greater the mass, the more force needed to
significantly change an objects inertia
Examples
Sprinter in starting blocks must apply considerable
force to overcome his resting inertia
Runner on an indoor track must apply considerable
force to overcome moving inertia & stop before
hitting the wall
Thrown or struck balls require force to stop them

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 Law of Inertia

Force is required to change inertia

Any activity carried out at a steady
pace in a consistent direction will
conserve energy
Any irregularly paced or directed
activity will be very costly to energy From Hamilton N, Luttgens K:
Kinesiology: scientific basis of

reserves human motion, ed 10, 2002,

McGraw-Hill.

Ex. handball & basketball are so

much more fatiguing than jogging or
dancing

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 Law of Acceleration

A change in the acceleration of a

body occurs in the same direction as
the force that caused it. The change
in acceleration is directly
proportional to the force causing it
and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body.

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 Law of Acceleration

Acceleration - the rate of change in

velocity
To attain speed in moving the body, a
strong muscular force is generally
necessary
Mass - the amount of matter in the body
affects the speed & acceleration in physical
movements

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 Law of Acceleration
A much greater force is required from the
muscles to accelerate a 230-pound man than
than to accelerate a 130-pound man to the
same running speed
A baseball maybe accelerated faster than a shot
because of the difference in weight
The force required to run at half speed is less
than the force required to run at top speed
To impart speed to a ball or an object, the body
part holding the object must be rapidly
accelerated
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 Law of Reaction
For every action there is an opposite and
equal reaction.
As we place force on a surface by walking
over it, the surface provides an equal
resistance back in the opposite direction to
the soles of our feet
Our feet push down & back, while the
surface pushes up & forward
Force of the surface reacting to the force
we place on it is ground reaction force
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 Law of Reaction

We provide the action force while

the surface provides the reaction
force
easier to run on a hard track than
on a sandy beach due to the
difference in the ground reaction
forces of the two surfaces
track resists the runner's propulsion
force, and the reaction drives the From Hamilton N, Luttgens K:

runner ahead Kinesiology: scientific basis of

human motion, ed 10, 2002,
McGraw-Hill.

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 Law of Reaction
sand dissipates the runner's force reducing
the reaction force with the apparent loss in
forward force & speed
sprinter applies a force in excess of 300
pounds on his starting blocks, which resist
with an equal force
in flight, movement of one part of the body
produces a reaction in another part
because there is no resistive surface to
supply a reaction force

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 Friction

Friction - force that results from the

resistance between surfaces of two
objects from moving upon one another
Depending increased or decreased friction
may be desired
To run, we depend upon friction forces
between our feet & the ground so that we
may exert force against the ground &
propel ourselves forward

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 Friction

With slick ground or shoe surface

friction is reduced & we are more
likely to slip
In skating, we desire decreased
friction so that we may slide across
the ice with less resistance

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 Friction

Static friction or kinetic friction

Static friction - the amount of friction
between two objects that have not yet
begun to move
Kinetic friction - friction occurring between
two objects that are sliding upon one
another

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 Friction

Static friction is always greater than

kinetic friction
It is always more difficult to initiate dragging
an object across a surface than to continue
dragging
Static friction may be increased by
increasing the normal or perpendicular
forces pressing the two objects together
such as in adding more weight to one
object sitting on the other object

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 Friction

To determine the amount of friction forces

consider both forces pressing the two
objects together & the coefficient of
friction
depends upon the hardness & roughness of
the surface textures
Coefficient of friction - ratio between force
needed to overcome the friction over the
force holding the surfaces together

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 Friction

Rolling friction - resistance to an object

rolling across a surface such as a ball
rolling across a court or a tire rolling
across the ground
Rolling friction is always much less that
static or kinetic friction

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability

Balance - ability to control equilibrium,

either static or dynamic
Equilibrium - state of zero acceleration
where there is no change in the speed
or direction of the body
static or dynamic
Static equilibrium - body is at rest or
completely motionless

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability

Dynamic equilibrium - all applied &

inertial forces acting on the moving body
are in balance, resulting in movement
with unchanging speed or direction
To control equilibrium & achieve
balance, stability needs to be maximized
Stability is the resistance to a
change in the body's acceleration
disturbance of the body's equilibrium

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability

Stability is enhanced by determining

body's center of gravity & appropriately
changing it
Center of gravity - point at which all of
body's mass & weight are equally
balanced or equally distributed in all
directions
Balance - important in resting & moving
bodies

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability

Generally, balance is desired

Some circumstances exist where
movement is improved when the body
tends to be unbalanced
General factors applicable to enhancing
equilibrium, maximizing stability, &
ultimately achieving balance:
1. A person has balance when the center of
gravity falls within the base of support

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability
2. A person has balance in the direct proportion
to the size of the base
The larger the base of support, the more
balance
3. A person has balance depending on the
weight (mass)
The greater the weight, the more balance
4. A person has balance, depending on the
height of the center of gravity
The lower the center of gravity, the more
balance
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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability
5. A person has balance, depending on where
the center of gravity is in relation to the base
of support
Balance is less if the center of gravity is near
the edge of the base
When anticipating an oncoming force,
stability may be improved by placing the
center of gravity nearer the side of the base
of support expected to receive the force

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability
6. In anticipation of an oncoming force,
stability may be increased by enlarging the
size of the base of support in the direction of
the anticipated force.
7. Equilibrium may be enhanced by increasing
the friction between the body & the surfaces
it contacts
8. Rotation about an axis aids balance
A moving bike is easier to balance than a
stationary bike

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability
9. Kinesthetic physiological functions
contribute to balance
The semicircular canals of the inner ear,
vision, touch (pressure), & kinesthetic sense
all provide balance information to the
performer
Balance and its components of equilibrium
and stability are essential in all movements
and are all affected by the constant force of
gravity as well as by inertia

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 Balance, equilibrium, & stability

In walking a person throws the body in

and out of balance with each step
In rapid running movements where
moving inertia is high, the center of
gravity has to be lowered to maintain
balance when stopping or changing
direction
In jumping activities the center of gravity
needs to be raised as high as possible

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 Force

Muscles are the main source of force

that produces or changes movement of a
body segment, the entire body, or some
object thrown, struck, or stopped
Strong muscles are able to produce
more force than weak muscles
both maximum and sustained exertion over
a period of time

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 Force

Forces either push or pull on an object in

an attempt to affect motion or shape
Without forces acting on an object there
would be no motion
Force - product of mass times
acceleration
Mass - amount of matter in a body

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 Force

The weight of a body segment or the

entire body X the speed of acceleration
determines the force
Important in football
Also important in activities using only a part
of the body
In throwing a ball, the force applied to the
ball is equal to the weight of the arm times
the speed of acceleration of the arm
Leverage factors are also important
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 Force

Force = mass x acceleration

F=MxA

Momentum (quantity of motion) - equal to

mass times velocity
The greater the momentum, the greater
the resistance to change in the inertia or
state of motion

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 Force

Many activities, particularly upper

extremity, require a summation of forces
from the beginning of movement in the
lower segment of the body to the twisting
of the trunk and movement at the
shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints
Ex. golf drive, shot-putting, discus and
javelin throwing

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 Mechanical loading basics
Significant mechanical loads are generated
& absorbed by the tissues of the body
Internal or external forces may causing
these loads
Only muscles can actively generate
internal force, but tension in tendons,
connective tissues, ligaments, and joints
capsules may generate passive internal
forces

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 Mechanical loading basics

External forces are produced from

outside the body & originate from gravity,
inertia, or direct contact
All tissues, in varying degrees, resist
changes in their shape
Tissue deformation may result from
external forces, but can result from
internally generated forces

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 Mechanical loading basics

Internal forces can

fracture bones
dislocate joints
disrupt muscles & connective tissues
To prevent injury or damage from tissue
deformation the body must be used to
absorb energy from both internal &
external forces

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 Mechanical loading basics

It is advantageous to absorb force over

larger aspects of our body rather than
smaller and to spread the absorption rate
over a greater period of time
Stronger & healthier tissues are more
likely to withstand excessive mechanical
loading & the resultant excessive tissue
deformation

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 Mechanical loading basics

Excessive tissue deformation due to

mechanical loading may result from
Tension (stretching or strain)
Compression
Shear
Bending
Torsion (twisting)

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 Throwing

In the performance of various sport skills

such as throwing, many applications of
the laws of leverage, motion, and
balance may be found
In throwing, the angular motion of the
levers (bones) of the body (trunk,
shoulder, elbow, and wrist) is used to
give linear motion to the ball when it is
released

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 Throwing

In throwing, the individual's inertia & the

ball's inertia must be overcome by the
application of force (Law of inertia)
Muscles of the body provide the force to
move the body parts & the ball
Law of acceleration is in effect with the
muscular force necessary to accelerate
the arm, wrist, & hand

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 Throwing

The greater the force (mass X

acceleration) that a person can produce,
the faster the arm will move, and thus the
greater the speed that will be imparted to
the ball
The reaction of the feet against the
surface on which the subject stands
applies the law of reaction

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 Throwing

The longer the lever, the greater the

speed that can be imparted to the ball
The body from the feet to the fingers can be
considered as one long lever
The longer the lever, from natural body
length or the body movements to the
extended backward position, the greater will
be the arc through which it accelerates and
thus the greater the speed imparted to the
thrown object

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 Throwing
Short levers are advantageous in taking less
total time to release the ball
Balance or equilibrium is a factor in throwing
when the body is rotated posteriorly in the
beginning of the throw
the body is moved nearly out of balance to the rear,
balance changes again with the forward movement
balance is reestablished with the follow-through
when the feet are spread and the knees & trunk are
flexed to lower the center of gravity

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 Wheels and axles
Used primarily to enhance range of
motion & speed of movement in the
musculoskeletal system
function essentially as a form of a lever
When either the wheel or axle turn, the
other must turn as well
Both complete one turn at the same time

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 Wheels and axles
Center of the wheel & the axle both
correspond to the fulcrum
Both the radius of the wheel & the
radius of the axle correspond to the
force arms

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 Wheels and axles
If the wheel radius is greater than the
radius of the axle, then, due to the
longer force arm, the wheel has a
mechanical advantage over the axle
a relatively smaller force may be applied to
the wheel to move a relatively greater
resistance applied to the axle
if the radius of the wheel is 3 times the
radius of the axle, then the wheel has a 3
to 1 mechanical advantage over the axle

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 Wheels and axles
calculate mechanical advantage of a
wheel & axle by considering the
radius of the wheel over the axle

Mechanical radius of the wheel

advantage = radius of the axle

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 Wheels and axles
If application of force is reversed and
applied to the axle, then the mechanical
advantage results from the wheel
turning a greater distance & speed
if the radius of the wheel is 3 times the
radius of the axle, then outside of the wheel
will turn at a speed 3 times that of the axle
the distance that the outside of the wheel
turns will be 3 times that of the outside of
the axle

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 Wheels and axles
Calculate the mechanical advantage
for this example by considering the
radius of the wheel over the axle

Mechanical radius of the axle

advantage = radius of the wheel

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 Wheels and axles
Ex. resulting in greater range of motion
& speed is with upper extremity in
internal rotators attaching to humerus
humerus acts as the axle
hand & wrist are located at the outside of
the wheel when elbow is flexed 90 degrees
with minimal humerus rotation, the hand &
wrist travel a great distance
allows us significantly increase the speed at
which we can throw objects

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 Pulleys
Single pulleys function to
change effective direction of
force application
Mechanical advantage = 1
Pulleys may be combined to
form compound pulleys to
increase mechanical advantage
Each additional rope increases
mechanical advantage by 1

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 Pulleys
Ex. lateral malleolus acting as a
pulley around which tendon of
peroneus longus runs From Hamilton N, Luttgens
K: Kinesiology: scientific
As peroneus longus contracts, it pulls basis of human motion, ed
10, 2002, McGraw-Hill.

toward it belly (toward the knee)

Using the lateral malleolus as a pulley,
force is transmitted to plantar aspect of
foot resulting in eversion/plantarflexion

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