ferrite:

Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of body centred

cubic crystal structure (Fig .2(a)) ( iron ) of higher lattice
parameter (2.89) having solubility limit of 0.09 wt% at
1495C with respect to austenite. The stability of the phase
ranges between 1394-1539C.
Fig.1:Crystal structure of ferrite

This is not stable at room temperature in plain carbon steel.

However it can be present at room temperature in alloy steel
specially duplex stainless steel.
It is the softest structure in the Fe-Fe3C diagram
3

 phase or austenite:
Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron of face centred cubic crystal structure
(Fig.3(a)) having solubility limit of 2.11 wt% at 1147C with respect to
cementite. The stability of the phase ranges between 727-1495C and solubility
ranges 0-0.77 wt%C with respect to alpha ferrite and 0.77-2.11 wt% C with respect
to cementite, at 0 wt%C the stability ranges from 910-1394C.

Fig. 2: Crystalstructureofaustenite

Fe3C or Cementite:
Interstitial intermetallic compound of C & Fe with a carbon content of 6.67 wt% and
orthorhombic structure consisting of 12 iron atoms and 4 carbon atoms in the unit cell. It
is the hardest structure in the diagram.
Stability of the phase ranges from low temperatures to 1227C

Fig.3: Orthorhombic crystal structure of cementite. The purple atoms represent

carbon. Each carbon atom is surronded by eight iron atoms. Each iron atom is
connected to three carbon atoms.

-ferrite:
Interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron
of body centred cubic crystal structure (
iron) (same as Fig. 1) having solubility limit
of 0.0218 wt % C at 727C with respect to
austenite.
The stability of the phase ranges between
low temperatures to 910C, and solubility
ranges 0.00005 wt % C at room temperature
to 0.0218 wt%C at 727C with respect to
cementite.

IMPORTANT NON-VARIANT REACTIONS IN

IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM

Peritectic reaction
Liquid+Solid1Solid2
L (0.53wt%C) + (0.09wt%C) (0.17wt%C)
at 1495C
Liquid (18.18wt%) + -ferrite (81.82 wt%)
100 wt%

Eutectic reaction
Liquid Solid1+ Solid2
Liquid (4.3wt%C) (2.11wt%C) + Fe3C
(6.67wt%C) at 1147C
Liquid (100 wt%) (51.97wt%) +Fe3C
(48.11wt%)
The phase mixture of austenite and cementite
formed at eutectic
temperature is called ledeburite.

Eutectoid reaction
Solid1Solid2+Solid3
(0.77wt%C) (0.0218wt%C) + Fe3C (6.67wt
%C) at 727C
(100 wt%) (89 wt% ) +Fe3C (11wt%)

Typical density
ferrite=7.87 g cm-3
Fe3C=7.7 g cm-3
volume ratio of -ferrite:Fe3C = 7.9:1

Definition of Pearlite
It is an aggregate or mixture of two phases namely
Ferrite and Cementite, having 88% and 12% by
weight respectively, formed when steel of 0.8%C is
cooled slowly below 7270C.
It is a very fine platelike or lamellar mixture of
ferrite and cementite.

Fig.4:The appearance of a pearlitic microstructure

underopticalmicroscope

Fig.7 : Optical micrograph of extremely fine pearlite. The

individuallamellaecannotnowberesolved.

Fig. 5 : A cabbage filled with water analogy of the three

dimensional structure of a single colony of pearlite, an
interpenetratingbicrystalofferriteandcementite

AVERAGE PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT STRUCTURES APPEAR

IN Fe-Fe3C DIAGRAM
STRUCTURE

TS (MPa)

El (%) in 2
INCH

HARDNESS
(ROCKWEL
RC)

FERRITE

276

40

0 , (R B = < 90)

AUSTENITE
CEMENTITIT
E
PEARLITE

1034
34

10

40 approx.

827

20

20

Proeutectoid signifies is a phase that forms (on

cooling) before the eutectoid austenite decomposes.
It has a parallel with primary solids in that it is the
first phase to solidify out of the austenite phase.
Hypoeutectoid

steel

(C<

0.8

wt%)

produces

proeutectoid ferrite
Hypereutectoid Steel (0.8<C<1.8wt%) produces
proeutectiod cementitite.

How to calculate the proeutectoid constituents in Hypoeutectiod

and Hypereutectoid Steel?

1. For a 99.65 wt% Fe- 0.35 wt% C alloy at a temperature just

below eutectoid , determine the following:
a) The fraction of total ferrite and cementite phase
b) the fraction of proeutectiod ferrite and pearlite
c) the fraction of eutectic ferrite.
2. Consider 1.0 kg of austenite containing 1.15 wt% C cooled
below 727 0C :
a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
b) How many kgs of each ferrite and cementite form?
c) How many kgs each of pearlite and proeutectoid phase
form?

Limitationsofequilibriumphasediagram
Fe-Fe3C equilibrium/metastable phase diagram
Stability of the phases under equilibrium condition
only.
It does not give any information about other metastable
phases. i.e. bainite, martensite.
It does not indicate the possibilities of suppression of
proeutectoid phase separation.
No information about kinetics
No information about size
No information on properties.

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

CONTINUED
Fundamentals
FeCequilibriumdiagram.Isothermaland
ContinuousCoolingTransformationDiagramsfor
PlainCarbonandAlloySteels.Microstructureand
MechanicalPropertiesofPearlite,Bainiteand
Martensite.AusteniticGrainSize.Hardenability:its
measurementandcontrol.
Processes
Annealing,NormalisingandHardeningofSteels,
QuenchingMedia,Tempering.Homogenisation.
DimensionalandCompositionalChangesduringHeat
Treatment.ResidualStressesandDecarburisation

CONTINUED
SurfaceHardening
Cascarburising,Nitriding,Carbonitriding,InductionandFlamehardening
processes.
SpecialGradeSteels
Stainlesssteels,Highspeedtoolsteels,Maragingsteels,Highstrengthlowalloy
steels.
Castirons
White,GrayandSpheroidalgraphiticcastirons
NonferrousMetals
Annealingofcoldworkedmetals.Recovery,RecrystallisationandGrain
growth.HeattreatmentofAluminum,Copper,Magnesium,Titaniumand
Nickelalloys.TemperdesignationsforAluminumandMagnesiumalloys.

ControlledAtmospheres
Oxidizing,ReducingandNeutralatmospheres.

Definition of Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is an operation or combination

of operations involving heating at a specific
rate, soaking at a temperature for a period of
time and cooling at some specified rate. The
aim is to obtain a desired microstructure to
achieve

certain

predetermined

properties

(physical, mechanical, magnetic or electrical).

Objectives of heat treatment (heat treatment

processes)
The major objectives are :
to increase strength, harness and wear resistance (bulk hardening, surface
hardening)
to increase ductility and softness (tempering, recrystallization annealing)
to increase toughness (tempering, recrystallization annealing)
to obtain fine
normalising)

grain size (recrystallization annealing, full annealing,

to remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by cold working,

non-uniform cooling from high temperature during casting and welding (stress relief
annealing)

toimprovemachineability(fullannealingandnormalising)
toimprovecuttingpropertiesoftoolsteels(hardeningandtempering)
toimprovesurfaceproperties(surfacehardening,corrosionresistance
stabilising treatment and high temperature resistanceprecipitation
hardening,surfacetreatment)
to improve electrical properties (recrystallization, tempering, age
hardening)
toimprovemagneticproperties(hardening,phasetransformation)

An overview of important heat treatments

HEAT TREATMENT
BULK
ANNEALING

SURFACE

NORMALIZING

HARDENING
&

THERMAL

TEMPERING
Full Annealing

MARTEMPERING

Recrystallization Annealing
Stress Relief Annealing
Spheroidization Annealing

Flame
Induction

AUSTEMPERING

LASER
Electron Beam

THERMOCHEMICAL
Carburizing
Nitriding
Carbo-nitriding

Ranges of temperature where Annealing, Normalizing and Spheroidization

treatment are carried out for hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels.
Ful
l

910C

An
ne

A3

alin

No
rma

liza
t

ion

al
m
r
No

tio
a
z
i

Acm

Full Annealing

723C

A1

Stress Relief Annealing

Spheroidization

Recrystallization Annealing
Wt% C
0.8 %

Full Annealing
The steel is heated above A3 (for hypo-eutectoid steels) | A1 (for hyper-eutectoid
steels) (hold) then the steel is furnace cooled to obtain Coarse Pearlite
Coarse Pearlite has Hardness, Ductility
Not above Acm to avoid a continuous network of proeutectoid cementite along
grain boundaries ( path for crack propagation)

Recrystallization Annealing
Heat below A1 Sufficient time Recrystallization
Cold worked grains New stress free grains
Used in between processing steps (e.g. sheet rolling)

Stress Relief Annealing

Residual stresses Heat below A1 Recovery

Annihilation of dislocations,
polygonization
Welding

Differential cooling

Machining and cold working Martensite formation

Spheroidization Annealing
Heat below/above A1 (long time)
Cementite plates Cementite spheroids Ductility
Used in high carbon steel requiring extensive machining
prior to final hardening & tempering
Driving force is the reduction in interfacial energy

NORMALIZING
Heat above A3 | Acm Austenization Air cooling Fine Pearlite (Higher hardness)

Purposes
Refine grain structure prior to hardening
To harden the steel slightly
To reduce segregation in casting or forgings

In hypo-eutectoid steels normalizing is done 50oC above the annealing

temperature
In hyper-eutectoid steels normalizing done above Acm due to faster cooling
cementite does not form a continuous film along GB

Annealing
1. Heat to above Upper Critical
Temperature, at which point the
structure is all Austenite
2. Cool very slowly in the furnace.
3. Structure will now be large-grained
pearlite.
4. Used to improve the properties of
cast and forged steels prior to
machining.

HARDENING
Heat above A3 | Acm Austenization Quench (higher than critical cooling rate)
Quench produces residual strains

Transformation to Martensite is usually not complete (will have retained Austenite)

Martensite is hard and brittle
Tempering operation usually follows hardening; to give a good combination of
strength and toughness

Typical hardness test survey made along a

diameter of a quenched cylinder

Schematic showing variation in cooling

rate from surface to interior leading to
different microstructures

Severity of quench values of some typical quenching

conditions
Process
Variable
H Value
Air

No agitation

0.02

Oil quench

No agitation

0.2

"

Slight agitation

0.35

"

Good agitation

0.5

"

Vigorous agitation

0.7

Water quench

No agitation

1.0

"

Vigorous agitation

1.5

Brine quench
(saturated Salt water)

No agitation

2.0

"

Vigorous agitation

5.0

Ideal quench

Severity of Quench as indicated by the heat

transfer equivalent H

f
K

[m 1 ]

f heat transfer factor

K Thermal conductivity

Note that apart from the nature of the quenching medium, the vigorousness of the shake
determines the severity of the quench. When a hot solid is put into a liquid medium, gas
bubbles form on the surface of the solid (interface with medium). As gas has a poor
conductivity the quenching rate is reduced. Providing agitation (shaking the solid in the liquid)
helps in bringing the liquid medium in direct contact with the solid; thus improving the heat
transfer (and the cooling rate). The H value/index compares the relative ability of various media
(gases and liquids) to cool a hot solid. Ideal quench is a conceptual idea with a heat transfer
factor of ( H = )

Tempering

' ( BCT ) Temper ( BCC ) Fe3C (OR)

Martensite
Ferrite Cementite

Heat below Eutectoid temperature wait slow cooling

The microstructural changes which take place during tempering are very
complex
Time temperature cycle chosen to optimize strength and toughness
Tool steel: As quenched (Rc 65) Tempered (Rc 45-55)

MARTEMPERING & AUSTEMPERING

These processes have been developed to avoid residual stresses generated during
quenching.
In both these processes Austenized steel is quenched above M s (say to a
temperature T1) for homogenization of temperature across the sample.
In Martempering the steel is then quenched and the entire sample transforms
simultaneously to martensite. This is followed by tempering.
In Austempering instead of quenching the sample, it is held at T1 for it to transform
800
Eutectoid temperature
to bainite.
723

Austenite
Pearlite

600
+ Fe3C

Pearlite + Bainite

500
400

Bainite
T1

300
200
100

Ms

Austempering

Mf

0.1

Martempering
1

10

102
t (s)

103

Martensite
104

105

Martensite
Only formed by very rapid cooling from the
austenitic structure.
Needs to be above the Critical Cooling Rate.

Quenching
The steels shown in blue on the following slide
can be heat treated to harden them by
quenching.

Metals
Ferrous metals
Steels

Non-ferrous metals
Cast Irons

Plain carbon steels

Low carbon steels

Grey Iron
White Iron

Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Iron

High carbon steels
Low alloy steels
High alloy steels
Stainless & Tool steels