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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

U. S. Prasad

C. P. Verma

Reservoir Engineering
Learning Objectives :

Basic concerns of Reservoir Engineering

Scope of Reservoir engineering
Basic concepts and operating variables
Tools of reservoir engineering

DEFINITIONs OF RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
The phase of engineering which deals with the transfer
of fluids to, from or through the reservoirs

oil

Functions of RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
To continuously monitor the reservoir and collect
relevant data and interpret it to be able to
1.
2.
3.

Determine (present conditions))

Estimate ( future conditions) and
Control

the movement of fluids through the reservoir

so that

Objectives of reservoir
engineering
a) To enhance ( increase recovery
factor) and
b) To accelerate ( increase production
rate)
the oil recovery

Types of reservoir energy

1.
2.
3.
4.

- Energy of compression of water

and rock within the reservoir
- Energy of compression of oil
within the reservoir
- Energy of compression of gas
within the reservoir
- Energy of compression of water
that are in adjacent or underlying
aquifers

Types of reservoir energy

5.

6.

The gravitational energy that

causes oil and gas to segregate
within the reservoir
The surface energy manifesting
itself in capillary pores

Producing mechanisms
based on dominant reservoir energy being released
Common

special
gravity

Depletion
drive

Formation
drive

Gas cap
drive

imbibition

Combination drive

Water drive

Full
Solution
Gas drive
Segregating

Nonsegregating

compaction

Partial

I.Edge

I.Edge

II.Bottom

II.Bottom

Basic concerns of reservoir engineers

(i.e.Reservoir engineer has to
continuously answer:)
1. To calculate the volume of the initial
hydrocarbon present in the
reservoir ?
2. How much of the initial fluids have
been recovered ?
3. How much is left ?

Reservoir engineer has to

continuously answer:
4. How can we increase recovery
economically?
5. What data are needed to answer the
questions?

Reservoir engineer has to

continuously answer:
7. How can I measure the performance
of the reservoir?
8. How can I improve the
performance?

Scope of Reservoir
engineering:
Reservoir engineer has to understand
(1) the nature of reservoir fluids
(2) the nature of reservoir rocks and
(3)the nature and behavior of rock
fluid systems

Scope of Reservoir
engineering:
In dealing with rock fluid systems we
have
basic concepts and
operating variables.
Basic concepts are: multiphase fluid
flow, capillary behavior and fluid
displacement are to name a few.

Scope of Reservoir
engineering:
Operating variables are:
geometrical configuration of the rock-fluid system, i.e.
spacing of wells
boundary conditions of flow, i.e. rates at which oil is
produced or pressure allowed to change in the well
Types and characters of the reservoir fluids involved, i.e.
amount of gas space allowed to develop, the water
injected or relative viscosities of oil and water
The sequence of operations undertaken,.i.e. whether
pressure depletion is permitted before or after
injection of water

Tools of Reservoir engineering:

Under the influence of these operating
variables, answering the previous
questions requires material balance
calculations and performance
evaluations i.e predictions and
interperations.

Tools of Reservoir engineering:

Among the predictive and
interpretation tools available are
simple MBE equation (zero
dimensional), frontal advance
equation (1D), numerical
simulators.

Tools of Reservoir engineering:

Numerical simulators are in fact are
multidimensional, multiphase
dynamic material balance
programs.
The classical MBE approach is well
worth as it provides valuable insight
into behavior of HC reservoirs

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Phases in Field
Development
QO

Broadly three phases in the

development of a field. The
phases are defined as;

Primary recovery phase

Secondary recovery phase
Tertiary recovery phase

Tertiary

Secondary
Primary

Time

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Primary Recovery Phase

Primary oil recovery phase describes the production of

hydrocarbons under the natural driving mechanism present in the
reservoir.
The sources of natural reservoir energy are fluid and rock
expansion, solution gas drive, gravity drainage, and the influx of
water from aquifers.
Based on the principal source of reservoir energy, the reservoirs
are classified as (1) Water drive, (2) solution gas drive, (3) fluid
expansion, (4) gas-cap drive, and (5) gravity drainage.
These natural sources of energy displace oil towards the producer
without supplementary help from injected fluids such as water or
gas.

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Secondary Recovery Phase

Lack of sufficient natural drive needs supplementing the natural

reservoir energy by introducing some form of artificial drive, the
most basic method being the injection of gas or water.

Waterflooding, called secondary recovery because the process

yields a second batch of oil after a field is depleted by primary
production

The practice of Waterflooding apparently began accidentally as

early as 1890, when operators realised that water entering the
productive formation was stimulating production.

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Tertiary Recovery/EOR Phase

The tertiary recovery is also a supplementation of

natural reservoir energy; however it is defined as that
additional recovery over and above what could be
recovered from primary and secondary recovery
methods.

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Different EOR processes are

EOR Processes

Thermal EOR
Processes

In-situ
combus
tion

Air
injectio
n

Steam
flooding

Chemical EOR
Processes

AlkaliSurfactant
-Polymer

Polymer

Miscible EOR
Processes

Immiscible EOR
Processes

Hydrocarbon
miscible

Hydrocarbon
immiscible

CO2 miscible
N2 miscible

CO2
immiscible

Flue gas

N2
immiscible

Flue gas

Microbial EOR
Processes

Consortium
of Bacteria
used for
insitu
generation
of
suphonates
, CO2,etc.
for profile
modificatio
n

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Water Flooding

Waterflooding is the most widely used post-primary

recovery methods practiced all over the world as it is
inexpensive.
Waterflooding serves two purposes in maintaining the
reservoir pressure which energises the system and in
displacing oil towards the production wells.

Waterflooding
Injection
Well

Water
Injection
Pump

Separation and
Storage Facilities

Production Well

Oil Zone

Injection Water

Waterflooding Highlights
Description
Waterflooding consists of injecting water into the
reservoir. Water is injected in patterns or along the
periphery of the reservoir.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency
Water drive
Increased pressure

Waterflooding Highlights
Limitations
High oil viscosities result in high mobility
ratios.
Some heterogeneity is acceptable, but avoid
extensive fractures.
Challenges
Poor compatibility between the injected water
and the reservoir may cause formation damage.
Subsurface fluid control to divert injected water
and to shut off undesirable produced fluids.

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

While deciding suitability of a candidate

reservoir for Waterflooding following reservoir
characteristics should be considered;

Flood Pattern
Reservoir Heterogeneity
Mobility Ratio
Recovery Efficiency

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Flood Pattern

The areal geometry of the

reservoir will influence the
location of wells and that will
essentially decide the flooding
pattern
(injection-production
well arrangements).
The commonly used flood
patterns are given in the
following figures;

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Reservoir Heterogeneity

Substantial reservoir heterogeneity is one of the

major problems for successful Waterflooding.
Variation in properties can be areal and vertical.
Heterogeneity of the reservoirs is attributed to the
depositional environment and subsequent events.
Permeability variation is considered to be one of
the most important parameter which affects the
efficiency of water flooding.

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Mobility

Ratio

Mobility ratio is the ratio of the displacing phase

and the displaced
Mobility ratio less than 1 suggests piston type of
displacement leading to better sweep efficiency
than cases where mobility ratio is greater than 1.
Low oil viscosity is preferred for water flooding. The
reason is; at abandonment areal sweep efficiency
would be very high.

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Recovery Efficiency
A simplistic model for estimating overall recovery involves
factoring the recovery efficiency into individual process
efficiencies.
ER = EA * EV * ED * EM
Where;
ER = Overall recovery efficiency
EA = areal sweep efficiency
EV = Vertical sweep efficiency
ED = Displacement efficiency
EM = mobilization efficiency

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Areal Sweep Efficiency

It is defined as the fractional area of the field that is

invaded by an injected fluid. The major factors
determining areal sweep are fluid mobility, pattern
type, areal heterogeneity, extent of field
development, and total volume of fluid injected

Vertical Sweep Efficiency

It is defined as the fraction of the vertical section

that is contacted by injected fluids and is primarily a
function of the vertical heterogeneity and the degree
of vertical segregation

S
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S
/
B
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r
p
o
f
B
o
i
oi
M

Secondary drive Mechanism & EOR

Displacement Efficiency

It is the fraction of the mobile oil in the swept zone that has been
displaced and is a function of the volume injected, the fluid viscosities
and the relative permeability curves of the rock

Mobilization Efficiency

It is defined as the fraction of the oil in place at the start of a recovery

process that ultimately could be recovered by that process and is given
as

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Processes

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes include all
methods that use external sources of energy
and/or materials to recover oil that cannot be
produced, economically by conventional means.

Currently Used EOR Processes

Thermal

methods

steam stimulation,
steamflooding,
hot water drive,
in-situ combustion

Currently Used EOR Processes

Chemical methods
Polymer, surfactant,
Caustic, and micellar/polymer
flooding.
Miscible / Immiscible methods
Hydrocarbon gas
CO2, nitrogen, flue gas

Thermal (Steamflooding)

Steamflooding Highlights

Description
Steamflooding consists of injecting about
80% quality steam to displace oil.
Normal practice is to precede and
accompany the steam drive by a cyclic
steam stimulation of the producing wells
(called huff and puff).

Steamflooding Highlights
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery
Efficiency
Viscosity reduction / steam distillation.
Thermal expansion.
Supplies pressure to drive oil to the
producing well.

Steamflooding Highlights
Limitations

Applicable to viscous oils in massive, high

permeability sandstones or unconsolidated sands.
Oil saturations must be high, and pay zones should
be > 20 feet thick to minimize heat losses to
adjacent formations.
Steamflooded reservoirs should be as shallow as
possible, because of excessive wellbore heat
losses.

Thermal (Steamflooding) Highlights

More Limitations
Steamflooding is not normally done in carbonate
reservoirs.
Since about 1/3 of the additional oil recovered is
consumed to generate the required steam, the cost
per incremental barrel of oil is high.
A low percentage of water-sensitive clays is
desired for good injectivity.
Challenges
Adverse mobility ratio and channeling of steam.

Polymer Flooding
Injection
Well

Water
Injection
Pump

Separation and
Storage Facilities

Production Well

Polymer
Solution from
Mixing Plant

Oil Zone

Polymer Solution

Drive Water

Polymer Flooding Highlights

Description
Polymer augmented waterflooding consists
of adding water soluble polymers to the
water before it is injected into the reservoir.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery
Efficiency
Mobility control (improves volumetric
sweep efficiency).

Polymer Flooding Highlights

Limitations
High oil viscosities require a higher polymer
concentration.
Results are normally better if the polymer flood is started
before the water-oil ratio becomes excessively high.
Clays increase polymer adsorption.
Some heterogeneity is acceptable, but avoid extensive
fractures. If fractures are present, the crosslinked or gelled
polymer techniques may be applicable.

Polymer Flooding Highlights

Limitations
High oil viscosities require a higher polymer
concentration.
Results are normally better if the polymer flood is started
before the water-oil ratio becomes excessively high.
Clays increase polymer adsorption.
Some heterogeneity is acceptable, but avoid extensive
fractures. If fractures are present, the crosslinked or gelled
polymer techniques may be applicable.

Polymer Flooding Highlights

Challenges
Lower injectivity than with water can adversely
affect oil production rates in the early stages of the
polymer flood.
Acrylamide-type polymers loose viscosity due to
shear degradation, salinity and divalent ions.
Xanthan gum polymers cost more, are subject to
microbial degradation, and have a greater potential
for wellbore plugging.

Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Injection
Well

Water
Injection
Pump

Separation and
Storage Facilities

Production Well

Surfactant
Solution from
Mixing Plant

Oil Zone

Surfactant

Polymer Solution

Drive Water

Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Highlights
Description
Surfactant/polymer flooding consists of injecting a
slug that contains water, surfactant, electrolyte
(salt), usually a co-solvent (alcohol), followed by
polymer-thickened water.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency
Interfacial tension reduction (improves
displacement sweep efficiency).
Mobility control (improves volumetric sweep
efficiency).

Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Highlights
Limitations

An areal sweep of more than 50% for waterflood is

desired.
Relatively homogeneous formation.
High amounts of anhydrite, gypsum, or clays are
undesirable.
Available systems provide optimum behavior within a
narrow set of conditions.
With commercially available surfactants, formation water
chlorides should be <20,000 ppm and divalent ions (Ca++
and Mg++) <500 ppm.

Surfactant/Polymer Flooding
Highlights
Challenges

Complex and expensive system.

Possibility of chromatographic separation of
chemicals.
High adsorption of surfactant.
Interactions between surfactant and polymer.

Degradation of chemicals at high temperature.

Miscible Gas Flooding

(CO2 Injection)
Injection
Well

Water
Injection
Pump

Separation and
Storage Facilities

Production Well

CO2 Injection
from Pipeline
or Recycle

Oil Zone

Oil Bank /
Miscible Front

CO2 and
Water Zone

Drive Water

Miscible Gas Flooding

(CO2 Injection) Highlights
Description
CO2 flooding consists of injecting large quantities
of CO2 (15% or more hydrocarbon pore volumes)
in the reservoir to form a miscible flood.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency
CO2 extracts the light-to-intermediate components
from the oil, and, if the pressure is high enough,
develops miscibility to displace oil from the
reservoir.
Viscosity reduction / oil swelling.

Miscible Gas Flooding

(CO2 Injection) Highlights
Limitations
Very low Viscosity of CO2 results in poor
mobility control.
Availability of CO2

Surface Facilities

Miscible Gas Flooding

(CO2 Injection) Highlights
Challenges

Early breakthrough of CO2 causes problems.

Corrosion in producing wells.

The necessity of separating CO2 from saleable
hydrocarbons. Repressuring of CO2 for recycling.

A large requirement of CO2 per incremental barrel

produced.

MBE Terminology
N
Boi

Initial reservoir oil volume, STB

Initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB

Np

Cumulative produced oil, STB

Bo

Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB

G
Bgi

Initial reservoir (free) gas (in gas cap), SCF

Initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF

MBE MBE Terminology

Rsoi Initial solution gas oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rp

Cumulative produced gas oil ratio , SCF/STB

Rso

Solution gas oil ratio, SCF/STB

G Initial reservoir (free) gas (in gas cap), SCF

Bg Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
W

(Volume of) initial reservoir water

MBE Terminology
Wp

Cumulative produced water, STB

Bw

Water formation volume factor, bbl/STB

We

Water influx into the reservoir, bbl

WI

Cumulative water injected, bbl

GI

Cumulative gas injected, SCF

BIg

Injected gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF

MBE Terminology
Cw

Water isothermal compressibility, psi-1

p
Swi

Change in average reservoir pressure, psi

Initial water saturation

Vp

Initial pore volume, bbl

Cf

Formation isothermal compressibility, psi-1

MBE variables :
Define/derive the following terms
Initial gas volume of gas cap , bbl GB gi
m

V olume of initial oil in place ,bbl

NB oi

GB gi mNB gi

MBE variables :
Reservoir (oil zone plus gas cap) pore
volume relations:

V p (1 Swi ) NB oi mNB oi
NB oi (1 m )
Vp
(1 Swi )

Assumes uniform Swi in oil and gas zones

Compressibility relations for any

material
By definition:

1 dv
c
v dp
pi

cdp
p

1
v dv
V
i

pi

Vi

cdp

V
i

c p i p ln

1
dv
v

V
exp c p i p
Vi

Expanding the exponential term for small c values:

V
1 c pi p
Vi

V i V V i c p i p

Compressibility relations
Defining the positive V and p
values as follows:
V V V i

We obtain
V V i c p

p p i p