Contents

Introduction
Sedimentology concepts
Fluvial environments
Deltaic environments
Coastal environments
Offshore marine environments

Sea-level change
Sequence stratigraphy
concepts
Marine sequence stratigraphy
Nonmarine sequence
stratigraphy
Basin and reservoir modeling
Reflection

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Fluvial environments
Channel patterns (fluvial styles) of alluvial rivers are
commonly classified as:

Braided rivers
Meandering rivers
Straight rivers
Anastomosing rivers

Fluvial style is primarily controlled by specific stream power

(W m-2) and bed-load grain size, but also by bank stability
and the amount of bed load (but not the proportion of
suspended load!)

gQs
w

=fluid density; Q=discharge; s=slope (gradient); w=channel width

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Animation

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Fluvial environments
Channel patterns (fluvial styles) of alluvial rivers are
commonly classified as:

Braided rivers
Meandering rivers
Straight rivers
Anastomosing rivers

Fluvial style is primarily controlled by specific stream power

(W m-2) and bed-load grain size, but also by bank stability
and the amount of bed load (but not the proportion of
suspended load!)

gQs
w

=fluid density; Q=discharge; s=slope (gradient); w=channel width

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Fluvial environments
Bars are sandy or gravelly macroforms in channels that
are emergent, mostly unvegetated features at low flow
stage, and undergo submergence and rapid
modification during high discharge
Point bars form on inner banks and typically accrete
laterally, commonly resulting in lateral-accretion
surfaces; mid-channel or braid bars accrete both
laterally and downstream
Bars are always associated with channels; a genetically
related bar/bar complex and channel/channel complex
is known as a storey

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Fluvial environments
Bars are sandy or gravelly macroforms in channels that
are emergent, mostly unvegetated features at low flow
stage, and undergo submergence and rapid
modification during high discharge
Point bars form on inner banks and typically accrete
laterally, commonly resulting in lateral-accretion
surfaces; mid-channel or braid bars accrete both
laterally and downstream
Bars are always associated with channels; a genetically
related bar/bar complex and channel/channel complex
is known as a storey

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Fluvial environments
Lateral accretion involves higher-order bounding
surfaces dipping perpendicular to paleoflow direction
and associated lower-order bounding surfaces; in the
case of downstream accretion higher-order bounding
surfaces dip parallel to paleoflow direction
Braided rivers are characterized by a dominance of
braid bars exhibiting both lateral and downstream
accretion; meandering rivers primarily contain point
bars with lateral accretion; in straight (and most
anastomosing) rivers bars are commonly almost absent

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Animation

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Fluvial environments
Lateral accretion involves higher-order bounding
surfaces dipping perpendicular to paleoflow direction
and associated lower-order bounding surfaces; in the
case of downstream accretion higher-order bounding
surfaces dip parallel to paleoflow direction
Braided rivers are characterized by a dominance of
braid bars exhibiting both lateral and downstream
accretion; meandering rivers primarily contain point
bars with lateral accretion; in straight (and most
anastomosing) rivers bars are commonly almost absent

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Fluvial environments
Facies successions in sandy to gravelly channel deposits
typically fine upward, from a coarse channel lag,
through large-scale to small-scale cross stratified sets
(commonly with decreasing set height), and finally
overlain by muddy overbank deposits
Facies successions produced by different fluvial styles
can be extremely similar!
The geometry and three-dimensional arrangement of
architectural elements therefore provides a much better
means of inferring fluvial styles from the sedimentary
record

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Fluvial environments
Facies successions in sandy to gravelly channel deposits
typically fine upward, from a coarse channel lag,
through large-scale to small-scale cross stratified sets
(commonly with decreasing set height), and finally
overlain by muddy overbank deposits
Facies successions produced by different fluvial styles
can be extremely similar!
The geometry and three-dimensional arrangement of
architectural elements therefore provides a much better
means of inferring fluvial styles from the sedimentary
record

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Fluvial environments
Channel belts consist of channel-bar and channel-fill
deposits; the proportion of the two generally decreases
markedly from braided rivers to anastomosing rivers
The geometry of a channel belt (width/thickness ratio) is a
function of the channel width and the degree of lateral
migration; values are typically much higher for braided
systems (>>100) than for straight or anastomosing systems
(<25)
Sheets have width/thickness ratios of >50
Ribbons have width/thickness ratios of <15

Residual-channel deposits are predominantly muddy

(occasionally organic) deposits that accumulate in an
abandoned channel where flow velocities are extremely small

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Fluvial environments
Channel belts consist of channel-bar and channel-fill
deposits; the proportion of the two generally decreases
markedly from braided rivers to anastomosing rivers
The geometry of a channel belt (width/thickness ratio) is a
function of the channel width and the degree of lateral
migration; values are typically much higher for braided
systems (>>100) than for straight or anastomosing systems
(<25)
Sheets have width/thickness ratios of >50
Ribbons have width/thickness ratios of <15

Residual-channel deposits are predominantly muddy

(occasionally organic) deposits that accumulate in an
abandoned channel where flow velocities are extremely small

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Fluvial environments
Overbank environments are dominated by finegrained facies (predominantly muds)
Natural-levee deposits are wedges (wings) of sediment
that form adjacent to the channel, dominated by fine sand
and silt exhibiting planar stratification or (climbing) ripple
cross stratification
Crevasse-splay deposits are usually cones of sandy to
silty facies with both coarsening-upward and fining-upward
successions, and are formed by small, secondary channels
during peak flow
Flood-basin deposits are the most distal facies, consisting
entirely of muddy sediments deposited from suspension,
and are volumetrically very important (mainly in low-energy
fluvial settings)

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Fluvial environments
Paleosols (well drained conditions) and occasional peats
(poorly drained conditions) occur frequently in overbank
environments and are important indicators of variations of
clastic aggradation rates and the position relative to active
channels (proximal vs. distal)
The pedofacies concept refers to the maturity of a
paleosol, irrespective of the specific set of pedogenic
processes operating, in the case of floodplains mainly
controlled by distance to the active channel
Lacustrine deposits can be important in overbank
environments characterized by high water tables, and are
also found in distal settings; they are more likely to contain
primary sedimentary structures (horizontal lamination) than
their frequently bioturbated subaerial counterparts

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Fluvial environments
Paleosols (well drained conditions) and occasional peats
(poorly drained conditions) occur frequently in overbank
environments and are important indicators of variations of
clastic aggradation rates and the position relative to active
channels (proximal vs. distal)
The pedofacies concept refers to the maturity of a
paleosol, irrespective of the specific set of pedogenic
processes operating, in the case of floodplains mainly
controlled by distance to the active channel
Lacustrine deposits can be important in overbank
environments characterized by high water tables, and are
also found in distal settings; they are more likely to contain
primary sedimentary structures (horizontal lamination) than
their frequently bioturbated subaerial counterparts

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Fluvial environments
Facies models highlight conspicuous differences between
different fluvial styles:
Channel-belt width/thickness ratio (braided: high; meandering:
intermediate; straight/anastomosing: low)
Channel-deposit proportion (braided: high; meandering:
intermediate; straight/anastomosing: low)
Overbank-deposit proportion (braided: low; meandering:
intermediate; straight/anastomosing: high)
Overbank-deposit geometry (meandering: wedge-shaped;
straight/anastomosing: highly irregular due to numerous
crevasse channels)
Overbank facies (meandering: well-drained paleosols
common; straight/anastomosing: peats and lacustrine
deposits common)

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Fluvial environments
Avulsion is the sudden diversion of a channel to a new
location on the floodplain, leading to the abandonment
of a channel belt and the initiation of a new one
Avulsions are the inevitable consequence of the
increase of cross-valley slope (typically through a
crevasse channel) relative to down-valley slope along
the channel, associated with the growth of an alluvial
ridge
An avulsion belt constitutes an extensive network of
rapidly aggrading, narrow, crevasse-like channels with
genetically associated overbank deposits, that may
surround the new channel belt

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Fluvial environments
Alluvial architecture refers to the three-dimensional
arrangement of channel-belt deposits and overbank
deposits in a fluvial succession
The nature of alluvial architecture (e.g., the proportion
of channel-belt to overbank deposits) is dependent on
fluvial style, aggradation rate, and the frequency of
avulsion
When alluvial architecture is dominated by channel-belt
deposits, the separation of channel belts from storeys
can be extremely difficult

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Fluvial environments
Alluvial architecture refers to the three-dimensional
arrangement of channel-belt deposits and overbank
deposits in a fluvial succession
The nature of alluvial architecture (e.g., the proportion
of channel-belt to overbank deposits) is dependent on
fluvial style, aggradation rate, and the frequency of
avulsion
When alluvial architecture is dominated by channel-belt
deposits, the separation of channel belts from storeys
can be extremely difficult

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Fluvial environments
Alluvial architecture refers to the three-dimensional
arrangement of channel-belt deposits and overbank
deposits in a fluvial succession
The nature of alluvial architecture (e.g., the proportion
of channel-belt to overbank deposits) is dependent on
fluvial style, aggradation rate, and the frequency of
avulsion
When alluvial architecture is dominated by channel-belt
deposits, the separation of channel belts from storeys
can be extremely difficult

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