Welcome

Our presentation
Under the supervisor
of

Md. Mizanur Rahman

Assistant Professor
ECE Discipline
Khulna University
Khulna
 Submitted By
A.K.M. Touhidur Rahman
ECE Discipline
Khulna University
Khulna

Roll no. 090918

 Discussion on
BJT & its characteristics, biasing and thermal
stabilization;
Bipolar Transistor Basics

If we join together two individual diodes end to end giving two PN-junctions connected
together in series, we now have a three layer, two junction, three terminal device forming the
basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short. This type of transistor is generally
known as a Bipolar Transistor, because its basic construction consists of two PN-junctions
with each terminal or connection being given a name to identify it and these are known as the
Emitter, Base and Collector respectively.

There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction,NPN and PNP, which basically
describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semicond- uctor materials from
which they are made. Bipolar Transistors are "CURRENT". Amplifying or current regulating
devices that control the amount of current flow- ing through them in proportion to the amount
of biasing current applied to their base terminal. The principle of operation of the two
transistor types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the only difference being in the biasing
(base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type.
Bipolar Transistor Construction:

FIG:01
Transistor action

The emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased whereas collector-base

junction is reverse biased. If for a moment, we ignore the presence of emitter-base
Junction , then no current would flow in the collector circuit because of the reverse
bias. However, if the emitter-base junction is also present , then forward bias on it
causes the emitter current to flow and the emitter current almost entirely flows in
the collector circuit. Therefore , the current in the collector circuit depends upon the
emitter current . If the emitter current is zero, then collector is nearly zero.

The transistor action of NPN and PNP are given below,

(i) Working of NPN transistor:

N P N

FIG:02:NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased B–C junction
An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode. In typical operation,
the emitter–base junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased.
In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base–emitter
junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field
of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into
the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high
concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The
electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would
make holes the majority carrier in the base.

N P N

FIG:02:NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased B–C junction
We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current (Ic) flows
freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However, this only
happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the transistor thus
allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of these two currents (Ic/Ib) is
called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, (β). Beta
has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is
called Alpha, (α),and is a function of the transistor itself. As the emitter current Ie is the product of a
very small base current to a very large collector current the value of this parameter α is very close to
unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.

α and β Relationships:
 By combining the two parameters α and β we can produce two mathematical expressions that
gives the relationship between the different currents flowing in the transistor.

(ii) Working of PNP transistor:

FIG:03:NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased B–C junction

The PNP transistor works essentially the same as the NPN transistor. However, since the emitter,
base, and collector in the PNP transistor are made of materials that are different from those used in
the NPN transistor, different current carriers
flow in the PNP unit. The majority current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. This is in
contrast to the NPN transistor where the majority current carriers are electrons. To support this
different type of current (hole flow), the bias batteries are reversed for the PNP transistor. A
typical bias setup for the PNP transistor is shown in figure 03.And the forward bias cause the
holes in the P-type emitter to flow toward the base.

To cause the Base current to flow in a PNP transistor the Base needs to be more negative than
the Emitter (current must leave the base) by approx 0.7 volts for a silicon device or 0.3 volts
for a germanium device with the formulas used to calculate the Base resistor, Base current or
Collector current are the same as those used for an equivalent NPN transistor and is given as.

Generally, the PNP transistor can replace NPN transistors in electronic circuits, the only
difference is the polarities of the voltages, and the directions of the current flow.
Transistor configuration:
There are basically three possible ways to connect a Bipolar Transistor within an electronic circuit
with each method of connection responding differently to its input signal as the static
characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.
1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

The Common Base Configuration:

Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the :

- base is common to both input and output of the
configuration.
- base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground
potential.
All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the
arrows in all electronic symbols have a direction defined by this
convention.
Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish
current in the direction indicated for each branch.

FIG:04
 To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of
characteristics:
- Input or driving point characteristics.
- Output or collector characteristics
 The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:
- Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements
- Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
- Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of V CB = 0V

FIG:05
 The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first
approximation to the relationship between IE and IC in the active region
is given by
IC ≈IE
 Once a transistor is in the ‘on’ state, the base-emitter voltage will be
assumed to be
VBE = 0.7V
 The relationship among these current can be analyse with KCL:IE = IB + IC
 Current collector is produce from the total sum of current emitter and leakage
current.

 Current emitter that flow through collector known as DC IE . The value is big
compare to leakage current
 In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are
related by a quantity called alpha
IC
= IE
IC = IC(majority) + IC(minority)

IC = IE + ICBO
 It can then be summarize to IC = IE (ignore ICBO due to small value)
 For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics
curve, an ac alpha defined by

  IC
IE
 Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by
calculating the current percent from current flow from emitter to
collector.The value of  is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998

 Proper biasing CB configuration in active region by approximation I C  IE (IB

 0 uA)

FIG:06
 Common-Emitter Configuration
It is called common-emitter configuration since :
- emitter is common or reference to both input and
output terminals.
- emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground
potential.
Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for
current and voltage.
Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE
;input (base terminal) and output (collector terminal) parameters.
Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region

FIG:07
  IB is microamperes compared to
miliamperes of IC.
 IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V
for silicon and 0.3V for
germanium
 Before this value IB is very small
and no IB.
 Base-emitter junction is forward
bias
 Increasing VCE will reduce IB
for different values.

FIG:08:Input characteristics for a

common-emitter NPN transistor
 For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC
increase linearly with increasing
of VCE
 VCE > VCESAT IC not totally
depends on VCE  constant IC
 IB(uA) is very small compare
to IC (mA). Small increase in IB
cause big increase in IC
 IB=0 A  ICEO occur.
Noticing the value when
IC=0A. There is still some value
of current flows.
FIG:09:Output characteristics for a
common-emitter NPN transistor
 Common – Collector Configuration
• Also called emitter-follower (EF).
• It is called common-emitter configuration since both the
signal source and the load share the collector terminal as a
common connection point.
• The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.
• The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is
similar with common-emitter. configuration.
• Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with the
load resistor connected from emitter to ground.
• It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it
has high input impedance and low output impedance.
FIG:10:Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration:
(a) pnp transistor ; (b) npn transistor.
 •For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics
are a plot of IE vs VCE for a range of values of IB.

IE( m A )

IB= 6 0 u A
6
IB = 5 0 u A
5
IB= 4 0 u A
4
S a tu ra tio n A c tiv e re g io n
re g io n IB= 3 0 u A
3
2 IB = 2 0 u A

IB = 1 0 u A
1
IB= 0 u A
V C E( V )
V C E( s a t) 5 10 15 20
C u to ff re g io n
FiFIG:11:
g 4 .9 : O utp u t ch a ra ct e ristic in C C c on fig u r a t ion
fo r np n tr a n sis to r
 Load line analysis
Consider a common emitter NPN transistor circuit where no signal is applied
.The output characteristics of the circuit are shown in fig-12.
The value of collector-emitter voltage at any time is given by:
VCE =VCC-ICRC
As VCC and RC are fixed values,therefore,it is a first degree equation and can be representation
by a straight line on the output characteristics. This is known as d.c load line and
determines the locus of points VCC-IC for any given value of RC. To add load line,we need two
end points of the straight line.These two points can be located as under:
(i)When the collector current =0,then collector-emitter voltage is maximum and is equal to
VCC i.e
Max. VCE =VCC-ICRC
=VCC (IC =0)
This gives the first point B(OB= VCC) on the collector-emitter voltage axis as shown in fig-
(ii)When collector-emitter voltage VCE =0,then collector current is maximum and equal to VCC
/RC
VCE =VCC-ICRC
or 0=VCC-ICRC
Max. IC=VCC /RC
This gives the second point A(OA= VCC /RC) on the collector current axis as shown
in fig-12
(iii) By joining these two point,d.c load line AB is constructed

RC

FIG.12:load line analysis

 Fixed bias (base bias)
This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the example image on the right, the single power
source (for example, a battery) is used for both collector and base of transistor, although separate
batteries can also be used.

In the given circuit,

VCC = IBRB+ Vbe

Therefore,

IB= (VCC - Vbe)/RB

FIG:13:Fixed bias (Base bias)

For a given transistor, Vbe does not vary significantly during use. As VCC is of fixed value, on
selection of RB, the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed bias type of circuit.

Also for given circuit,

VCC = ICRC+ Vce

Therefore,
Vce = VCC -IcRc

The common-emitter current gain of a transistor is an important parameter in circuit design, and
is specified on the data sheet for a particular transistor. It is denoted as β on this page.

Since
Ic= βIB
we can obtain IC as well. In this manner, operating point given as (Vce, IC) can be set for given
transistor.
Merits:
It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by merely changing the
base resistor (IB).
A very small number of components are required.
Demerits:
The collector current does not remain constant with variation in temperature or power supply
voltage. Therefore the operating point is unstable.
Changes in Vbe will change IB and thus cause RE to change. This in turn will alter the gain of
the stage.
When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the value of β can be
expected. Due to this change the operating point will shift.
 Collector-to-base bias
This configuration employs negative feedback to prevent
thermal runaway and stabilize the operating point. In this
form of biasing, the base resistor RB is connected to the
collector instead of connecting it to the DC source VCC. So
any thermal runaway will induce a voltage drop across the
RC resistor that will throttle the transistor's base current.
From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the
base resistor is RB.

FIG:14:Collector-to-base bias

here, Ic= βIB

From Ohm's law, the base current , and so

 hence, the base current Ib is,

If Vbeis held constant and temperature increases, then the collector current Ic
increases. However, a larger Ic causes the voltage drop across resistor Rc to
increase, which in turn reduces the voltage across the base resistor Rb. A lower
base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base current Ib, which results in less
collector current Ib. Because an increase in collector current with temperature is
opposed, the operating point is kept stable.
Merits:
Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and β (ie.
replacement of transistor).

Demerits:
In this circuit, to keep Ic independent of β, the following condition must be met:

.
which is the case when

As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this relation can be
satisfied either by keeping Rc fairly large or making Rb very low.
If Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which increases cost as well as precautions necessary
while handling.
If Rb is low, the reverse bias of the collector-base is small, which limits the range of collector
voltage swing that leaves the transistor in active mode.
The resistor Rb causes an AC feedback, reducing the voltage gain of the amplifier. This
undesirable effect is a trade-off for greater Q-point stability
Usage:

Due to the above inherent drawbacks, fixed bias is rarely used in linear circuits, ie. those circuits
which use the transistor as a current source. Instead it is often used in circuits where transistor is
used as a switch.
 Fixed bias with emitter resistor
The fixed bias circuit is modified by attaching
anexternal resistor to the emitter. This resistor
introduces negative feedback that stabilizes the
Q-point. From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the
voltage across the base resistor is
VRb = VCC -IeRe
From Ohm's law, the base current is
Ib = VRb/Rb
The way feedback controls the bias point is as
follows. If Vbe is held constant and temperature
increases, emitter current increases. However,
a larger Ie increases the emitter voltage
Ve = IeRe, which in turn reduces the voltage
VRb across thebase resistor. A lower base-resistor FIG:15:Fixed bias with
voltage drop reduces the base current, which emitter resistor
results in less
collector current because Ic = ßIb. Collector
current and emitter current are related by Ic = α Ie with α ≈ 1, so increase in emitter current with
temperature is opposed, and operating point is kept stable.
Similarly, if the transistor is replaced by another, there may be a change in IC (corresponding to
change in β-value, for example). By similar process as above, the change is negated and
operating point kept stable.
For the given circuit,
IB= (VCC - Vbe)/(Rb + (β+1)RE
Merits:
The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against changes in temperature
and β-value.
Demerits:
In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:

which is approximately the case if

( β + 1 ) RB >> RB.
As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RE
very large, or making RB very low.
If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions
necessary while handling.
If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply should be used in the base circuit. Using two
supplies of different voltages is impractical.
In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback which reduces the voltage gain of the
amplifier.
 Voltage divider bias
The voltage divider is formed using external resistors
R1 and R2. The voltage across R2 forward biases the
emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R1
and R2, the operating point of the transistor can be
made independent of β. In this circuit, the voltage
divider holds the base voltage fixed independent of
base current provided the divider current is large
compared to the base current. However, even with a
fixed base voltage, collector current varies with
temperature (for example) so an emitter resistor is
added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to the above
circuits with emitter resistor.

In this circuit the base voltage is given by:

FIG:16:Voltage divider bias

 voltage across

provided

Also

For the given circuit,

Merits:

Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.

Operating point is almost independent of β variation.
Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.

Demerits:

In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:
 which is approximately the case if

where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 connected in parallel.

As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RE
fairly large, or making R1||R2 very low.
If RE is of large value, high VCCis necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions
necessary while handling.
If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are low. A low R1 raises V B closer to
VC, reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large RC can be made
without driving the transistor out of active mode. A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed
collector current. Lowering both resistor values draws more current from the power supply and
lowers the input resistance of the amplifier as seen from the base.
AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which reduces the AC voltage gain of the
amplifier. A method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC feedback is discussed below.

Usage:
The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for linear circuits
 Emitter bias
When a split supply (dual power supply) is available, this
Biasing circuit is the most effective, and provides zero
bias voltage at the emitter or collector for load. The
negative supply VEE is used to forward-bias the emitter
junction through RE. The positive supply VCC is used
to reverse-bias the collector junction. Only two resistors
are necessary for the common collector stage and four
resistors for the common emitter or common base stage.
We know that,
VB -VE =Vbe
If RB is small enough, base voltage will be approximately
zero. Therefore emitter current is,
IE = (VEE -Vbe)/RE. The operating point is independent
of β if RE >> RB/β FIG:17:Emitter bias
Merit:
Good stability of operating point similar to voltage divider bias.
Demerit:
This type can only be used when a split (dual) power supply is available .