Principle of Structural Geology

Structural
Geology
Spring 2003
Structural Geology
Structural
geologists are concerned

with why parts of the Earth have been
bent into folds and others have been
broken by faults.
Mapping of these structures provides
important information to land
managers and mineral exploration.
Understanding of these features help
us understand the dynamic Earth.
Plate Tectonics
Tectonic Structures
Most
structures are driven by the

forces of Plate Tectonics
The kinds of structures are determined
by:
Temperature and pressure

Composition
Layering
Anisotropy or Isotropy of the layers
Amount of fluids present
Tectonic Structures
Time
(or rate of change) is very

importance
A rock may behave in a ductile or brittle
fashion depending upon how quickly it is
deformed
Tectonic Structures
Ductile
deformation produces:
Folds
Ductile Faults
Cleavages
Foliation
Tectonic Structures
Brittle
Deformation
Certain types of folds

Brittle Faults
Joints
Nontectonic Structures
Nontectonic
structures can mimic

tectonic structures
Meteor impacts
Landslides
Structures produce by gravitational forces
3-Dimensional Objects
Visualization
of 3-Dimensional Objects
Structural Geology
Subdisciplines
of Structural Geology
Field Relations
Make
accurate geologic maps

Measure orientations of small structures to inform us of
the shape of larger structures
Study the sequence of development and superposition
of different kinds of structures
Rock Mechanics the application of physics to

the study of rock materials.
Tectonic and Regional Structural Geology
Study of mountain ranges, parts of entire
continents, trenches and island arcs, oceanic
ridges
Applications of Structural
Geology
Engineering
Issues
Bridges
Dams
Power Plants
Highway Cuts
Large Buildings
Airports
Applications of Structural
Geology
Environmental
Issues
Earthquake hazard
Location of landfill sites
Contamination cleanup
Distribution of groundwater
Mineral exploration
Scale in Structural Geology

Microscopic
Need magnification
Foliation, Micro folds

Mesoscopic
Hand specimens and
outcrops
Foliation, Folds, Faults
Macroscopic
Mountainside to map
levels
Basins, domes, Metamorphic Core
Complexes
Scale in Structural Geology

Non-penetrative
structures not present on
all scales
Faults
Isolated folds
Penetrative
structures found on any scale

that we chose to study
Slaty cleavage
Foliation
Some folds
Scale and Folds
Figure 1-6
Fundamental Concepts
Doctrine
of Uniformitarianism
Law of Superposition
Law of Original Horizontality
Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships
Law of Faunal Succession
Multiple Working Hypotheses
Outrageous Hypothesis
Fundamental Concepts
Pumpellys
Rule Small structures are

a key to and mimic the styles and
orientations of larger structures of the
same generation within a particular
area.
Plate Tectonics
Driving
Mechanisms
Convection
Push-Pull Theory
Plate
Boundaries
Divergent
Convergent
Transform
Geochronology
Absolute
Age Dating
Review of atomic structure
Most useful isotope decay processes
Using radioactivity in dating

Reviewing
Atomic
basic atomic structure

number
An elements identifying number

Equal to the number of protons in the
atoms nucleus
Mass
number
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons

in an atoms nucleus

Reviewing
basic atomic structure
Isotope
Variant of the same parent atom

Differs in the number of neutrons
Results in a different mass number than the
parent atom

Radioactivity
Spontaneous
changes (decay) in the

structure of atomic nuclei
Types of radioactive decay
Alpha emission
Emission of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (an
alpha particle)
Mass number is reduced by 4 and the
atomic number is lowered by 2

Types
of radioactive decay
Beta emission
An electron (beta particle) is ejected from
the nucleus
Mass number remains unchanged and the
atomic number increases by 1

Types
of radioactive decay
Electron capture
An electron is captured by the nucleus
The electron combines with a proton to
form a neutron
Mass number remains unchanged and the
atomic number decreases by 1
Common Types of Radioactive

Decay

Parent
an unstable radioactive
isotope
Daughter product the isotopes
resulting from the decay of a parent
Half-life the time required for onehalf of the radioactive nuclei in a
sample to decay
A radioactive decay curve

Radiometric
Principle
dating
of radioactive dating
The percentage of radioactive atoms that

decay during one half-life is always the
same (50 percent)
However, the actual number of atoms that
decay continually decreases
Comparing the ratio of parent to daughter
yields the age of the sample

Radiometric
Sources
dating
of error
A closed system is required

To avoid potential problems, only fresh,
unweathered rock samples should be used
Blocking Temperature The temperature
below which a crystal lattice traps
radioactive daughter products.
Geochronology
Mineral
Zircon
Garnet
Rutile
Muscovit
e
K-spar
Biotite
Hornblen
de
Syste Daughter Blocking T

m
C
U-Pb 207, 206Pb
>800
U-Pb 207, 206Pb
700-725
U-Pb 207, 206Pb
550-650
87
Rb-Sr
Sr
Rb-Sr
Rb-Sr
K-Ar
Sr
87
Sr
40
Ar
87
300
480
Geochronology
Uranium-Lead
Method (U-Pb)
Most reliable technique for rocks

Ages exceed 10 million years
Use of Zircons for dating
U
235
U
232
Th
238
Pb (half-life = 4.5x109yrs)
207
208
206
Uranium-Lead Method
Uranium-Lead Method
Geochronology
Robidium-Strontium
(Rb-Sr)
Most applicable in rocks over 100 million

years old
Whole-rock ages are more reliable in RbSr
No gaseous daughter elements
Principle source of error is later
metamorphism and hydrothermal
alteration.
Rb
87
Sr + (half-life = 48.8x109yrs)
87
Geochronology
Potassium-Argon
(K-Ar)
Used for rocks around 1 million years old

Ar is a gas and can be easily released from most
rocks
Biotite, muscovite, hornblende retain argon
better than other minerals
Low blocking temperatures (300C - 480

C)
Ca +
(half-life = 1.2x109yrs)
40
Ar
40
40
Geochronology
Argon-Argon (40Ar-39Ar)
Samples must be irradiated to convert 39K
to 39Ar
Can determine the cooling history of the
rocks
Useful for determining the time of uplift,
metamorphism, or emplacement of
structures
Geochronology
Samarium
- Neodynium (Sm-Nd)
Used mainly for dating ocean floor basalts

because sea water is abundant in Sr but
depleted in Nd
Therefore, can be used to determine
contamination by sea water and
hydrothermal alteration
Sm
147
Nd (half-life = 106x109yrs)
143
Rock Cycle

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Structural

geologists are concerned

structures are driven by the

Temperature and pressure

(or rate of change) is very

Certain types of folds

structures can mimic

accurate geologic maps

Rock Mechanics the application of physics to

Scale in Structural Geology

Foliation, Micro folds

Hand specimens and

Scale in Structural Geology

structures not present on

structures found on any scale

Scale and Folds

Rule Small structures are

Using radioactivity in dating

basic atomic structure

An elements identifying number

Sum of the number of protons and neutrons

Using radioactivity in dating

basic atomic structure

Variant of the same parent atom

Using radioactivity in dating

changes (decay) in the

Using radioactivity in dating

Using radioactivity in dating

Common Types of Radioactive

Using radioactivity in dating

A radioactive decay curve

Using radioactivity in dating

The percentage of radioactive atoms that

Using radioactivity in dating

A closed system is required

Syste Daughter Blocking T

Most reliable technique for rocks

Most applicable in rocks over 100 million

Used for rocks around 1 million years old

Low blocking temperatures (300C - 480

Used mainly for dating ocean floor basalts

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