Organic

Chemistry

Presented by
GL Kapde

Introductions

1. Organic chemicals compounds appear in

materials like clothing, fuels, polymers
dyes and medicines.
2. F. Wohler synthesised an organic
compound, urea from an inorganic
compound, ammonium cyanate.

STRUCTURAL
REPRESENTATION OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Complete, condensed and bond line
structural formulas

Organic compounds structures are

represented in several ways.
1. The Lewis structure or dot structure, dash
structure, condensed structure and
bond line structural formulas are some of
the specific types.
2. The Lewis structures, however, can be
simplified
by representing the two-electron
covalent
bond by a dash ().

Thus, ethane (C2H6), ethene (C2H4), ethyne (C2H2)

Such structural representations are
called complete structural formula
H

H
H
C

H
H

Ethane
H

C
Ethyne

Ethene

These structures can also be represented by the

following ways
CH3 CH3 H2C
H2C HC
HC
Ethane
Ethene
Ethyne
organic chemists use another way of representing
the structures, in which only lines are used. In this
bond-line structural representation of organic
compounds, carbon and hydrogen atoms are not
shown and the lines representing carbon-carbon
bonds are drawn in a zig-zag fashion.
For example
3-Methyloctane can be represented in
various
forms as:
i) CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
|
CH3

Three-Dimensional
Representation of Organic
Molecules
The
three-dimensional (3-D) structure of
organic molecules can be represented on
paper by using certain conventions. For
example, by using solid
and dashed
wedge formula, the 3-D image of a molecule
from a two-dimensional picture can be
perceived.
solid-wedge is used to indicate a bond
projecting out of the plane of paper,
towards the observer.
The dashed-wedge is used to depict the
bond projecting out of the plane of the
paper and away from the observer.
___________________________________________________________

The bonds lying in plane of the paper are depicted

by using a normal line ().
Wedge-and-dash representation of
CH4

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

Acyclic or open chain

compounds
These
compounds are also called as aliphatic
compounds and consist of straight or branched
chain compounds, for example:

Alicyclic or closed chain or ring

compounds
Alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) compounds contain
carbon atoms joined in the form of a ring
(homocyclic). Sometimes atoms other than
carbon are also present in the ring (heterocylic).
Some examples are

Aromatic compounds
Aromatic compounds are special types of
compounds
.
These include
benzene and other related
ring compounds (benzenoid).

In order to clearly identify compound, a

systematic method of naming has been
developed and is known as the IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied
The names are
correlated
with the structure
Chemistry)
system
of nomenclature.
such that the reader or listener can deduce the
structure from the name.

The traditional names are considered a trivial

or common names.

Hydrocarbons : Compounds containing carbon

and hydrogen only are called hydrocarbons.

Straight chain hydrocarbons: The names of such

compounds are based on their chain structure, and
end with suffix -ane and carry a prefix indicating
the number of carbon atoms present in the chain
(except from CH4 to C4H10, where the prefixes are
derived from trivial names).

Branched chain hydrocarbons: In a

branched chain compound small chains of carbon
atoms are attached at one or more carbon atoms
of the parent chain. The small carbon chains
(branches) are called alkyl groups.

In order to name such compounds, the names of

alkyl groups are prefixed to the name of parent
alkane. An alkyl group is derived from a saturated
hydrocarbon by removing a
hydrogen atom from carbon. Thus, CH4 becomes
-CH3 and is called methyl group.

Nomenclature of branched
chain alkanes

1. First of all, the longest carbon chain in the

molecule
Exampl is identified.
e

2 . The numbering is done in such a way that

the branched carbon atoms get the lowest
possible numbers.

3. If different alkyl groups are present, they are listed

in alphabetical order. Thus, name for the compound
shown above is: 6-ethyl-2- methylnonane.
[Note: the numbers are separated from the
groups by hyphens and there is no break
between methyl and nonane.]

4. If two or more identical substituent groups are

present then the numbers are separated by
commas. The names of identical substituents are
not repeated, instead prefixes such as di (for 2), tri
(for 3), tetra (for 4), penta (for 5), hexa (for 6) etc.
are used.

5. If the two substituents are found in equivalent

positions, the lower number is given to the one
coming first in the alphabetical listing.
6. The branched alkyl groups can be named by
following the above mentioned procedures. carbon
atom ofthe branch that attaches to the root
alkane is numbered 1 as exemplified below.

While writing the trivial names of substituents in

alphabetical order, the prefixes iso- and neoare considered to be the part of the
fundamental name of alkyl group. The
prefixes sec- and tert- are not considered to be
the
of the fundamental
name. the following
Inpart
multi-substituted
compounds,
rules may also be remembered:
If there happens to be two chains of equal
size, then that chain is to be selected which
contains more number of side chains.
After selection of the chain, numbering is to
be done from the end closer to the
substituent.

For example

Cyclic Compounds: A saturated

monocyclic : Compound is named by prefixing
cyclo to the corresponding straight chain alkane. If
side chains are present, then the rules given above
are applied. Names of some cyclic compounds
are given below.

 A functional group, as defined earlier, is an atom

or a group of atoms bonded together in a unique
manner which is usually the site of chemical
reactivity in an organic molecule.
For example, CH3OH, CH3CH2OH, and
(CH3)2CHOH all
having -OH functional group liberate hydrogen on
reaction with sodium metal.
First of all, the functional group present in the
molecule is identified which determines the choice
of appropriate suffix.

The longest chain of carbon atoms

containing the functional group is numbered
in such a way that the functional group is
attached at the carbon atom possessing
lowest possible number in the chain.
In the case of poly functional compounds, one of
the functional groups is chosen as the principal
functional group and the compound is then named
on that basis.
The choice of principal functional group is made
on the basis
of order of preference. The order of decreasing
priority for some functional groups is:
-COOH, SO3H, -COOR (R=alkyl group), COCl,
-CONH2, -CN,-HC=O, >C=O, -OH, -NH2,

For IUPAC nomenclature of substituted benzene

compounds, the substituent is placed as prefix to
the word benzene as shown in the following
examples.

If benzene ring is disubstituted, the position of

substituents is defined by numbering the carbon
atoms of the ring such that the substituents are
located at the lowest numbers possible.

In the trivial system of nomenclature the terms

ortho (o), meta (m) and para (p) are used as
prefixes to indicate the relative positions 1,2- ;1,3and 1,4- respectively.

ISOMERISM

Structural
Isomerism
(i) Chain isomerism: When two or more
compounds have similar molecular formula but
different carbon skeletons, these are referred to as
chain isomers and the phenomenon is
termed as chain isomerism.

(ii) Position isomerism: When two or more

compounds differ in the position of substituent atom
or functional group on the carbon skeleton, they are
called position isomers and this phenomenon is
termed as position isomerism.

(iii) Functional group isomerism: Two or

more compounds having the same molecular formula
but different functional groups are called functional
isomers and this phenomenon is termed as functional
group isomerism.

(iv) Metamerism: It arises due to different

alkyl chains on either side of the functional group
in the molecule.

Stereoisom
erism

The compounds that have the same

constitution and sequence of covalent
bonds but differ in relative positions of
their atoms or groups in space are
called stereoisomers. This special type
of isomerism is called as
stereoisomerism and can be classified
as geometrical and optical isomerism.

In an organic reaction, the organic molecule (also

referred as a substrate) reacts with an
appropriate attacking reagent and leads to the
formation of one or more intermediate(s) and
finally product(s)
The general reaction is depicted as follows :

 Substrate is that reactant which supplies carbon

to the new bond and the other reactant is called
reagent.
If both the reactants supply carbon to the new
bond then choice is arbitrary and in that case the
molecule on
which
attention
is focused is called
substrate.
Reaction
mechanism:
A sequential

account of each step, describing details of

electron movement,
energetics during bond cleavage and
bond
formation, and the rates of transformation
of reactants into products (kinetics) is
referred to as reaction mechanism.

Fission of a Covalent
Bond
Cleavages of covalent bonds
(i) Heterolytic cleavage: In
heterolytic cleavage, the bond
breaks in such a fashion that the
shared pair of electrons remains
with one of the fragments.
()one atom has a sextet electronic
structure and a positive charge and
the other, a valence octet with at
least one lone pair and a negative
charge.

 A species having a carbon atom possessing

sextext of electrons and a positive charge is
called a carbocation (earlier called carbonium
ion).
The
observed order of carbocation stability is:

The organic reactions which proceed through

heterolytic bond cleavage are called ionic or
heteropolar or just polar
reactions.
(ii) Homolytic cleavage: In homolytic
cleavage, one of the
electrons of the shared pair in a covalent bond
goes with each of the bonded atoms. Thus in
homolytic cleavage, the movement of a single
electron takes place instead of an electron pair.

 Such cleavage results in the formation of

neutral species (atom or group) which contains
an unpaired electron. These species are called
free radicals.
A homolytic cleavage can be shown as:

Organic reactions, which proceed by

homolytic fission are called free radical or
homopolar or nonpolar reactions.

Nucleophiles and
Electrophiles

Nucleophile (Nu) : A reagent that brings an

electron pair i.e., nucleus seeking and the
reaction is then called nucleophilic.
Electrophile (E+): A reagent that takes away
an electron pair i.e., electron seeking and the
reaction is called electrophilic.
During a polar organic reaction, a nucleophile
attacks an electrophilic centre of the substrate
which is that specific atom or part of the
electrophile that is electron deficient.
Similarly, the electrophiles attack at nucleophilic
centre, which is the electron rich centre of the

Electron Movement in Organic

Reactions

The movement of electrons in organic reactions can

be shown by curved-arrow notation.
Presentation of shifting of electron pair is given
below :

 Movement of single electron is indicated by a

single barbed fish hooks (i.e. half headed curved
arrow).

Electron Displacement Effects in

Covalent
Bonds in an organic molecule
The electron displacement
may take place either in the ground state under the
influence of an atom or a substituent group or in the
presence of an appropriate attacking reagent.
examples of this type of electron displacements
are:
resonance effects
Inductive effect

Resonance Structure: A single Lewis structure

cannot explain all the property of the molecule
hence many Lewis structure are proposed for a
some molecule to explain the properties. Different
Lewis structure proposed are called as resonance
Lewis structure or canonical form of contributing
structure the phenomenon is called resonance
and the structures proposed are called resonance
structure.
The resonance structures (canonical structures
or
structures) are hypothetical and
contributing
The difference in energy between the actual
individually do not represent any real molecule.
structure and the lowest energy resonance
structure is called the resonance stabilisation
energy or simply the resonance energy.

The following rules are applied while writing

resonance structures:
The resonance structures have
(i) the same positions of nuclei
(ii) the same number of unpaired electrons.
Resonance Effect: The resonance effect is
defined as the polarity produced in the molecule
by the interaction
of two -bonds or between a -bond and lone pair
of electrons present on an adjacent atom.

There are two types of resonance effect

(i) Positive Resonance Effect (+R effect) : In

this effect, the transfer of electrons is away
from an atom or substituent group attached to
the conjugated system.
(ii) Negative Resonance Effect (- R effect):
This effect is observed when the transfer of
electrons is towards the atom or substituent
group attached to the conjugated system.
Inductive Effect: The process of electron
displacement of electrons along the chain of
carbon atoms due o the presence
of a polar covalent bond at one end of the chain.
This is a permanent effect and is generally
represented by an arrow as shown on the next
slide.

It may be noted that this effect decreases sharply

as we move away from the atom involved in the
initial polar bond and becomes negligible from the
fourth atom onwards.
It arises whenever an electron withdrawing group is
attached to end of a carbon chain.

Electromeric Effect (E
effect)

It is defined as the complete transfer of a shared

pair of -electrons to one of the atoms joined by a
multiple bond on the demand of an attacking
reagent.

 There are two distinct types of electromeric

effect.
(i) Positive Eelctromeric Effect (+E effect)
In this effect the electrons of the multiple
bond are transferred to that atom to which the
reagent gets attached. For example :

(ii) Negative Electromeric Effect (

E effect)
In this effect the - electrons of the multiple bond are
transferred to that atom to which the attacking
reagent does not get attached.

Hyperconjugatio
n

Hyperconjugation is a general stabilising interaction.

It involves delocalisation of electrons of CH bond
of an alkyl group directly attached to an atom of
unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared p
orbital. Hyperconjugation is a permanent effect.
Example:

METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Once an organic compound is extracted from a
natural source or synthesised in the laboratory, it is
essential to purify it. Various methods used for the
purification of organic compounds are based on the
nature of the compound and the impurity present in
it.
The common techniques used for purification are as
follows :

 Sublimation: In this process the solid

substance changes from solid to vapour form
without going to the liquid state it is used to
separate sublimable compound from nonsublimable impurities.
Crystallisation: It is based on the
difference in
the solubilities of the compound and the
impurities in a suitable solvent.
Distillation: This important method is used
to separate:(i) Volatile liquids from nonvolatile impurities

(ii) And the liquids having sufficient difference in

their boiling points.

Distillation is further divided in to :

i) Fractional distillation: If the difference in boiling
points of two
liquids is not much, simple distillation cannot be used
to separate them. The technique of fractional
distillation is used in such cases.
ii) Steam distillation : This technique is applied to
separate
Differential
substancesExtraction:
which are steam
Thevolatile
organicand are
immiscible
with water.
solvent and
the aqueous solution should be immiscible with
each other so that they form two distinct layers
which can be separated by separatory funnel.

 Chromatography: In this technique, the

mixture of substances is applied onto a stationary
phase, which may be a solid or a liquid. A pure
solvent, a mixture of solvents,
or a gas is allowed to move slowly over the
stationary phase.
CHROMATOGRAP
HY

Adsorption chromatography : Is based on the

fact that different compounds are adsorbed on an
adsorbent to different degrees.
Commonly used adsorbents are silica gel and
alumina.

Column chromatography: It involves

separation of a mixture over a column of adsorbent
(stationary phase) packed in a glass tube.

Thin layer chromatography (TLC): Is another

type of adsorption chromatography, which
involves separation of substances of a mixture
over a thin layer of an adsorbent coated on glass
plate.

The relative adsorption of each component of the

mixture is expressed in terms of its retardation
factor.

Partition
chromatograph
y

Continuous differential
partitioning of
component of a mixture
between stationary and
mobile phase.

QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS OF
The elements
present in organic compounds are
ORGANIC
carbon and
hydrogen. In addition to these, they
COMPOUNDS
may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
halogens and phosphorus.

Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen

Carbon and hydrogen are detected by heating the
compound with copper(II) oxide.
Carbon present in the compound is oxidised to
carbon dioxide (tested with lime-water, which
develops turbidity)

Hydrogen to water (tested with anhydrous copper

sulphate, which turns blue).

Detection of Other Elements: Nitrogen,

sulphur, halogens and phosphorus present in an
organic compound are detected
by Lassaignes test.
(A) Test for Nitrogen: The sodium fusion extract
is boiled with
iron(II) sulphate and then acidified with
concentrated sulphuric acid. The formation of
Prussian blue colour confirms the presence of
nitrogen.

Sodium cyanide first reacts with iron(II) sulphate

and forms sodium hexacyanoferrate(II).

On heating with concentrated sulphuric acid some

iron(II) ions are oxidised to iron(III) ions which react
with sodium hexacyanoferrate(II) to produce iron(III)
hexacyanoferrate(II) (ferriferrocyanide) which is
Prussian blue in colour.

(B) Test for Sulphur:

(a) The sodium fusion extract is acidified
with acetic acid and lead acetate is added
to it. A black precipitate of lead sulphide indicates
the presence of sulphur.

(b) On treating sodium fusion extract with sodium

nitroprusside, appearance of a violet colour further
indicates the presence of sulphur.

(C) Test for Halogens: The sodium fusion extract

is acidified with nitric acid and then treated with
silver nitrate.

Results:
A white precipitate, soluble in ammonium
hydroxide shows the presence of chlorine.
A yellowish precipitate, sparingly soluble in
ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of
bromine.
A yellow precipitate, insoluble in ammonium
hydroxide shows the presence of iodine.

(D) Test for Phosphorus: The compound is

heated with an oxidising agent (sodium peroxide).
The phosphorus present in the compound is
oxidised to phosphate. The solution is boiled with
nitric acid and then treated with ammonium
molybdate.
Result: A yellow colouration or precipitate
indicates the
presence of phosphorus.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Carbon and Hydrogen: A known mass of an
organic compound is burnt in the presence of
excess of oxygen and copper(II) oxide.
Carbon and hydrogen in the compound are
oxidised to carbon dioxide and water respectively.

Observation
The mass of water produced is determined by
passing the mixture through a weighed U-tube
containing anhydrous calcium chloride.
Carbon dioxide is absorbed in another U-tube
containing concentrated solution of potassium

The increase in masses of calcium chloride and

potassium hydroxide gives the amounts of water
and carbon dioxide from which the percentages of
carbon and hydrogen are calculated.

 Nitrogen: There are two methods for

estimation ofnitrogen: (i) Dumas method
(ii)Kjeldahls method.
(i) Dumas method: The nitrogen containing organic
compound, when heated with copper oxide in an
atmosphere of carbon dioxide, yields free nitrogen in
addition to carbon dioxide and water.

(ii) Kjeldahls method: The compound containing

nitrogen is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Nitrogen in the
compound gets converted to ammonium sulphate .
The liberated ammonia gas is absorbed in an
excess of standard solution of sulphuric acid.
The amount of ammonia produced is determined
by estimating unreacted sulphuric acid left after the
absorption of ammonia by titrating it with standard
alkali solution.

Drawbacks of this method:

It is not applicable

to
compounds containing nitrogen in nitro and azo
groups and nitrogen present in the ring (e.g. pyridine)
as nitrogen of these compounds does not change to
ammonium sulphate under these conditions.

Halogens
Carius method: A known mass of an organic
compound is heated with fuming nitric acid in the
presence of silver nitrate contained in a hard glass
tube known as Carius tube, in a furnace.
Carbon and hydrogen present in the compound are
oxidised to carbon dioxide and water.
The halogen present forms the corresponding
silver halide
(AgX). It is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.

Sulphur: A known mass of an organic compound

is heated in a Carius tube with sodium peroxide or
fuming nitric acid. Sulphur present in the compound
is oxidised to sulphuric acid.
It is precipitated as barium sulphate by adding
excess of barium chloride solution in water.
The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and
weighed. The percentage of sulphur can be
calculated from the mass of barium sulphate.

Phosphorus: A known mass of an organic

compound is heated with fuming nitric acid where
upon phosphorus present in the compound is
oxidised to phosphoric acid.
It is precipitated as ammonium
phosphomolybdate, by adding ammonia and
Oxygen: molybdate.
A definite mass of an organic compound
ammonium
is decomposed by heating in a stream of nitrogen
gas.
The mixture of gaseous products containing
oxygen is passed over red-hot coke when all the
oxygen is converted to carbon monoxide.
This mixture is passed through warm iodine
pentoxide
when carbon
monoxide
oxidised
to the

The percentage
of oxygen
can beisderived
from
carbon dioxide
producing
iodine.
amount
of carbon
dioxide or
iodine produced.

THANK YOU FOR

VIEWING

GL KAPDE
CHEMISTRY TEACHER
KVS