Reinforced Concrete

Slabs

FIGURE 1
Types of structural slabs

TYPES OF SLABS
In reinforced concrete construction, slabs are used to
provide flat, useful surfaces. A reinforced concrete slab is a
broad, flat plate, usually horizontal, with top and bottom
surfaces parallel or nearly so. It may be supported by
reinforced concrete beams (and is usually cast monolithically
with such beams), by masonry or reinforced concrete walls,
by structural steel members, directly by columns, or
continuously by the ground.
Slabs may be supported on two opposite sides only, as
shown in Fig. 1 a, in which case the structural action of the
slab is essentially one-way, the loads being carried by the
slab in the direction perpendicular to the supporting beams.
There may be beams on all four sides, as shown in Fig. 1 b,
so that two-way slab action is obtained. Concrete slabs in
some cases may be carried directly by columns, as shown in
Fig. 1 d, without the use of beams or girders. Such slabs are
described as flat plates and are commonly used where
spans are not large and loads not particularly heavy. Flat
slab construction, shown in Fig. 1 e, is also beamless but
incorporates a thickened slab region in the vicinity of the
column and often employs flared column tops. Both are
devices to reduce stresses due to shear and negative
bending around the columns. They are referred to as drop
panels and column capitals, respectively. Closely related to
the flat plate slab is the two-way joist, also known as a grid
or waffle slab, shown in Fig. 1 f . To reduce the dead load of
solid-slab construction, voids ar formed in a rectilinear
pattern through use of metal or fiberglass form inserts. A
two way ribbed construction results. Usually inserts are
omitted near the columns, so a solid slab is formed to resist
moments and shears better in these areas

DESIGN OF ONE-WAY
SLABS

Fig. 2

The structural action of a one-way slab may be

visualized in terms of the deformed shape of the loaded
surface. Figure 2 shows a rectangular slab, simply
supported along its two opposite long edges and free of
any support along the two opposite short edges. If a
uniformly distributed load is applied to the surface, the
deflected shape will be as shown by the solid lines.
Curvatures, and consequently bending moments, are
the same in all strips s spanning in the short direction
between supported edges, whereas there is no
curvature, hence no bending moment, in the long strips
I parallel to the supported edges. The surface
approximately cylindrical.
For purposes of analysis and design, a unit strip of such
a slab cut out at right angles to the supporting beams,
as shown in Fig. 2, may be considered as a rectangular
beam of unit width, with a depth h equal to the
thickness of the slab and a span la equal to the
distance between supported edges. This strip can then
be analyzed by the methods that were used for
rectangular beams, the bending moment being
computed for the strip of unit width. The load per unit
area on the slab becomes the load per unit length on
the slab strip. The loads recommended by ASCE for
different usage of slabs are shown in table 1. Since all
of the load on the slab must be transmitted to the two
supporting beams, it follows that all of the
reinforcement should be placed at right angles to these
beams, with the exception of any bars that may be

Table. 2
Minimum thickness h of
non prestressed one-way slabs

in the direction of la will result in lateral expansion in the

direction of lb unless the compressed concrete is
restrained. In a one-way slab, this lateral expansion is
resisted by adjacent slab strips, which tend to expand
also. The result is a slight strengthening and stiffening in
the span direction, but this effect is small and can be
disregarded.
Factored moments and shears in one-way slabs can be
found either by elastic analysis or through the use ofthe
same coefficients as used for beams . If the slab rests
freely on its supports, the span length may be taken
equal to the clear span plus the depth of the slab but
need not exceed the distance between centers of
supports, according to ACI Code 8.9.1. In general,
center-to-center distances should be used in continuous
slab analysis, but a reduction is allowed in negative
moments to account for support width as discussed in
Chapter 12. For slabs with clear spans not more than 10
ft that are built integrally with their supports, ACI Code
8.9.4 permits analysis as a continuous slab on knife
edge supports with spans equal to the clear spans and
the width of the beams otherwise neglected. If moment
and shear coefficients are used, computations should be
based on clear spans.
ACI Code 9.5.2 specifies the minimum thickness in Table
2 for nonprestressed slabs of normal weight concrete
(wc = 145 pcf) using Grade 60 reinforcement, provided
that the slab is not supporting or attached to
construction that is likely to be damaged by large
deflections. Lesser thicknesses may be used if

in. for slabs up to 6 in. thickness, and to the next

higher in. for thicker slabs.
Shear will seldom control the design of one-way slabs,
particularly if low tensile reinforcement ratios are used.
It will be found that the shear capacity of the concrete
Vc will, almost without exception, be well above the
required shear strength Vn at factored loads.
The concrete protection below the reinforcement
should follow the requirements of ACI Code 7.7.1,
calling for in. below the bottom of the steel . In a
typical slab, 1 in. below the center of the steel may be
assumed.
The lateral spacing of the bars, except those used only
to control shrinkage and temperature cracks (see
Section 13.3), should not exceed 3 times the thickness
h or 18 in., whichever is less, according to ACI Code
7.6.5. Generally, bar size should be selected so that
the actual spacing is not less than about 1.5 times the
slab thickness, to avoid excessive cost for bar
fabrication and handling. Also, to reduce cost, straight
bars are usually used for slab reinforcement, cut off
where permitted are as described for beams .
Since concrete is weak in tension, these temperature
and shrinkage stresses are likely to result in cracking.
Cracks of this nature are not detrimental, provided
their size is limited to what are known as hairline
cracks. This can be achieved by placing reinforcement
in the slab to counteract contraction and distribute the
cracks uniformly. In one-way slabs, the reinforcement
provided for resisting the bending moments has the

directions, it is necessary to provide special

reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature contraction
in the direction perpendicular to the main reinforcement.
This added steel is known as temperature or shrinkage
reinforcement, or distribution steel.

Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses

normal to the principal reinforcement should be provided
in a structural slab in which the principal reinforcement
extends in one direction only. ACI Code 7.12.2 specifies
the minimum ratios of reinforcement area to gross
concrete area (i.e., based on the total depth of the slab)
shown in Table 13.2, but in no case may such reinforcing
bars be placed farther apart than 5 times the slab
thickness or more than 18 in. In no case is the
reinforcement ratio to be less than 0.0014. The steel
required by the ACI Code for shrinkage and temperature
crack control also represents the minimum permissible
reinforcement in the span direction of oneway slabs; the
usual minimums for flexural steel do not apply.

Table. 3
Minimum ratios of temperature and
shrinkage reinforcement
in slabs based on gross concrete area

DESIGN LIMITATIONS ACCORDING TO THE ACI CODE

The following limitations are specified by the ACI Code.
1. A typical imaginary strip 1ft (or 1m) wide is assumed.
2. The minimum thickness of one-way slabs using grade 60 steel according to the ACI Code,
for solid slabs and for beams or ribbed one-way slabs should be equal to the following:
For simply supported spans: solid slabs, h = Ll20 (ribbed slabs, h = L/16).
For one-end continuous spans: solid slabs, h = Ll24 (ribbed slabs, h = Ll18.5).
For both-end continuous spans: solid slabs, h = Ll28 (ribbed slabs, h = Ll21).
For cantilever spans: solid slabs, h = LItO (ribbed slabs, h = Ll8).
For fy other than 60 ksi, these values shall be multiplied by 0.4 + 0.01 fy, where fy is in
ksi.
This minimum thickness should be used unless computation of deflection indicates a
lesser thickness can be used without adverse effects.
3. Deflection is to be checked when the slab supports are attached to construction likely to be
damaged by large deflections. Deflection limits are set by the ACI Code, Table 9.5b.
4. It is preferable to choose slab depth to the nearest in. (or to mm).
5. Shear should be checked, although it does not usually control.
6. Concrete cover in slabs shall not be less than in. (20 mm) at surfaces not exposed to
weather or ground. In this case, d = h - (3/4 in.) - (half-bar diameter).
7. In structural slabs of uniform thickness, the minimum amount of reinforcement in the
direction of the span shall not be less than that required for shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement (ACI Code, Section 7.12). .
8. The principal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than three times the slab
thickness nor more than 18 in. (ACI Code, Section 7.6.5).
9. Straight-bar systems may be used in both tops and bottoms of continuous slabs. An
alternative bar system of straight and bent (trussed) bars placed alternately may also be
used.

One-way slab
design.

Notes

Example.
1. A reinforced concrete slab is built integrally
with its supports and consists of two equal spans,
each with a clear span of 15 ft. The service live
load is 100 psf,v and 4000 psi concrete is specified
for use with steel with a yield stress equal to
60,000 psi.
Requiremaent
2. Design the slab, following the provisions of the
ACI Code.
Solution
3. Thickness of Slab.
h= L/28
Table 3
h= 15x12/28 = 6.43 in
Say 6.5 in
4. Factored Loads
Dead Load = 1.2x( 6.5x150/12) = 97
psf
Live Load = 1.6x 100
= 160

Total
= 257

5.For this case, factored moments at critical

sections may be found using the ACI moment
coefficients(see Table 12.1):

6. Max Steel ratio

7. Determine As for max negative BM (6.43 lb ft)

( Assume a=1
and find As)
( Check a for As

Notes

determined )
As = 0.27 sq in at mid support
As = 0.17 sq in at mid span
As = 0.1 sq in at ext support
8. Temperature and shrinkage Reinforcement
As = 0.0018 X 12 X 6.50 = 0.14 in2
9. Shear Force .
The factored shear force at a distance d from the face of
the interior support is

Ok
10. Check spacing of reinforcement etc

Two -Way Slab

Fig. 1

When the slab is supported on all four sides and

the length is less than twice the width. The slab will
deflect in two directions. and the loads on the slab
arc transferred to all four supports. This slab is
referred to as a two-way slab. The bending
moments and deflections in such slabs are less
than those in one-way slabs: thus. the same slab
can carry more load when supported on four sides.
The load in this case is carried in two directions,
and the bending moment in each direction is much
less than the bending moment in the slab if the
load were carried in one direction only. Typical twoway slabs is shown in Fig. 1
To visualize its flexural performance, it is
convenient to think of it as consisting of two sets of
parallel strips, in each of the two directions,
intersecting each other. Evidently, part of the load
is carried by one set and transmitted to one pair of
edge supports, and the remainder by the other.
Figure 1 shows the two center strips of a
rectangular plate with short span la and long span
lb' If the uniform load is q per square foot of slab,
each of the two strips acts approximately as a
simple beam, uniformly loaded by its share of q.
Because these imaginary strips actually are part of
the same monolithic slab, their deflections at the
intersection point must be the same. Equating the
center deflections of the short and long strips gives

where qais the share of the load q carried in the

short direction and qb is the share of the load q
carried in the long direction. Consequently,

One sees that the larger share of the load is carried

in the short direction, the ratio of the two portions of
the total load being inversely proportional to the
fourth power of the ratio of the spans.

This result is approximate because the actual

behavior of a slab is more complex than that of the
two intersecting strips. For instance for a simply
supportId square slab, qa = qb = q/2 . If only bending
were present, the maximum moment in each strip
would be

The exact theory of bending of elastic plates shows

that actually the maximum moment in such a square
slab is only O.048ql2, so that in this case the twisting
moments relieve the bending moments by about 25
percent. Inelastic redistribution also modifies these
bending moments further. A complicated situation is
therefore obtained. Various design method are
suggested to resolve this situation.

Choice of Concrete Slabs

Various types of floor systems can be used for

general buildings. such as residential. office. And
institutional buildings. The choice of an adequate
and economic floor system depends on the type of
building. architectural layout. aesthetic features. and
the span length between columns. In general. the
superimposed live load on buildings varies between
80 and 150 psf. A general guide for the economical
use of Boor systems can be summarized as follows.
Flat plates are most suitable for spans of 20 to 25 ft
and live loads between 60 and 100 psf. The
advantages of adopting flat plates include low-cost
formwork, exposed fl al ceilings. and fast
construction. Flat plates have low shear capacity and
relatively low stiffness. which may cause noticeable
deflection. Flat plates are widely used in buildings
either as reinforced or prestressed concrete slabs.
Flat slabs are most suitable for spans of 20 to 30 ft
and for live loads of 80 to 150 psf. They need more
fonnwork than flat plates. especially for column
capitals. In most cases. only drop panels without
column capitals are used.
Waffle slabs are suitable for spans of 30 to 48 ft and
live loads of 80 to 150 psf They carry heavier loads
than flat plates and have attractive exposed ceilings.
Formwork. including the use of pans. is quite
expensive.

Design of Two-way Slabs

Slabs on beams are suitable for spans between 20 and 30

ft and live loads of 60 to 120 psf . The beams increase the
stiffness of the slabs. producing relatively low deflection.
Additional form wor k for the beams is needed.
One-way slabs on beams are most suitable for spans of 10
to 20 ft and a live load of 60 to 100 psf. They can be used
for larger spans with relatively higher cost and higher slab
deflection . Additional formwork for the beams is needed.
A one-way joist floor system is most suitable for spans of
20 to 30 ft and live loads of 80 to 120 psf. Because of the
deep ribs. the concrete and steel quantities are relatively
low, but expensive formwork is expected. The exposed
ceiling of the slabs may look attractive.
Two-way slabs a re extremely complex and statically
indeterminate. Many attempts, analytical and empirical,
have been made to determine the division of the
moments an d shears between the two spans and the
distribution of these along the principal axes of the slab.
Many elastic analyses of .two-way slabs have been
proposed. All have shortcomings. They neglect Poisson's
ratio, torsion, changes in stiffness, ultimate capacity, edge
restraint, variation of moments and shears along span,
and others.
The direct design method. DDM (ACI Code. Section 13.6).
is an approximate procedure for the analysis and design of
two-way slabs. It is limited to slab systems subjected to
uniformly distributed loads and supported on equally or
nearly equally spaced columns. The method uses a set of
coefficients to determine the design moments at critical

The equivalent frame method. EFM (ACI Code. Section 13.7). is

one in which a three dimensional building is divided into a series
of two-dimensional equivalent frames by cutting the building
along lines midway between columns. The resulting frames are
considered separately in the longitudinal and transverse
directions of the building and treated 1100r by floor. as shown in
Fig.
In elastic analysis, a concrete slab may be treated as an elastic
plate. The flexure, shear, and deflection may be calculated by
the fourth differential equation relating load to deflection for thin
plates with small displacements, as presented by Timoshenko .
Finite difference as well as finite element solutions have been
proposed to analyze In the finite element method, the slab is
divided into a mesh of triangles or quadrilaterals. The
displacement functions of the nodes (intersecting mesh points)
are usually established, and the stiffness matrices are developed
for computer analysis slabs and plates.
For plastic analysis, three methods are available. The yield line
method was developed by Johansen to determine the limit state
of the slab by considering the yield lines that occur in the slab as
a collapse mechanism. The strip method was developed by
Hillerborg . The slab is divided into strips, and the load on the
slab is distributed in two orthogonal directions. The strips are
analyzed as simple beams. The third method is optimal analysis.
There has been considerable research into optimal solutions.
Rozvany
and others
presented methods for minimizing
reinforcement based on plastic analysis. Optimal solutions are
complex in analysis and produce complex patterns of
reinforcement.
Nonlinear analysis simulates the true load deformation
characteristics of a reinforced concrete slab when the finite
element method takes into consideration the nonlinearity of the
stress strain-relationship of the individual elements [11,12]. In
this case, the solution becomes complex unless simplified
empirical relationships are assumed.

Coefficient Method

This method has been used extensively since 1963 for

slabs supported at the edges by walls, steel beams, or
monolithic concrete beams having a total depth not less
than about 3 times the slab thickness. While it was not a
part of the 1977 or later ACI Codes, its continued use is
permissible under the ACI 318-08 code provision (13.5.1)
that a slab system may be designed by any procedure
satisfying conditions of equilibrium and geometric
compatibility, if it is shown that the design strength at
every section is at least equal to the requires strength, and
that serviceability requirements are met.
The method makes use of tables of moment coefficients for
a variety of conditions. These coefficients are based on
elastic analysis but also account for inelastic redistribution.
In consequence, the design moment in either direction is
smaller by an appropriate amount than the elastic
maximum moment in that direction.
Table 1-4 gives coefficients for different conditions for
bending moments and shear force. These also specify
formula to determine design parameters. The method since
falls with in framework of ACI 318-08; all other specification
of code do govern relevant design parameters.
Span length of members not built integrally with supports
shall be considered as the clear span plus the depth of the
member, but need not exceed distance between centers of
supports. ACI 8.9.1
Deflection of two-way slab should not exceed the limits
specified in table 9.5(b)

TABLE 9.5(b)
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
COMPUTED
DEFLECTIONS

For slabs with beams spanning between the supports

on all sides, the minimum thickness, h, shall be as
follows:
For fm greater than 0.2 but not
greater than 2.0, h shall not
be less than but not less than 5 in.

For fm greater than 2.0,

h shall not be less than but
not less than 3.5 in.
Max spacing of reinforcement should not
exceed twice thickness of slab or that given by
temperature and shrinkage .
The twisting moments are of consequence only at
exterior corners of a two-way slab system, where
they tend to crack the slab at the bottom along the
panel diagonal, and at the top perpendicular to the
panel diagonal. Special reinforcement should be
provided at exterior corners in both the bottom and
top of the slab, for a distance in each direction from
the corner equal to one-fifth the longer span of the
corner panel. The spacing and size should be same

1.

Example

Design the roof slab, beam and column of house given in

figure 1. Concrete compressive strength (fc) = 3 ksi.
Steel yield strength (fy) = 40 ksi.
Load on slab:
4 thick mud.
2 thick brick tile.
Live Load = 40
psf.
Requirement
2.
Design of slab for room and veranda.
Solution
Veranda Slab
3 Ratio of spans
lb/la = 24.75/8 = 3.09 > 2 one way slab
4 Assume slab thickness of slab = 5 in
Clear span = 8 + 5/12 = 8.42 ft
ACI 8.9.1
or
c/c of support = 8 + 13/24 + .5 = 9.0625 ft
Take l = 8.42 ft
Min slab thickness = l/20 x (0.4+fy/100000)x12
ACI 9.5.2.1
= 4.04 in 5 in is ok
5 d = 5 0.75 3/16 = 4 in
6 Factored loads
dead load
Slab = 0.15x5/12 = 0.0625 ksf
Mud = 0.12x4/12 = 0.04
ksf
Choka = 0.12x2/12= 0.02
ksf
total =0.1225 ksf
Live load = 0.04 ksf
Wu = 1.2x 0.1225 + 1.6x 0.04
= 0.211 ksf
Mu= (0.211x8.42x8.42/8)x12 = 22.44 in -kip/ft

Asmin = 0.002bhf (for fy 40 ksi, ACI 10.5.4)

= 0.002 12 5 = 0.12 in2
a = Asminfy/ (0.85fcb)
= 0.12 40/ (0.85 3 12) = 0.156 in
Mn(min) = Asminfy (d a/2)
= 0.9 0.12 40 (4 0.156/2)
= 16.94 in-k < Mu
8 Determine As for applied Mu = 22.44 in-kip
Mu/0.9 = As x fy x d sq(Asxfy)/(1.7xfcxb)
As = 0.16 sq in
using #4 bars
Ab= 0.2 sq in
Spacing S= 0.2 x 12 /0.16
= 15 in c/c
using #3 bar S=0.11x12/0.16 = 7.5 in or 6 in
c/c is ok.
use #3 @ 6 in c/c
9 Temperature and Shrinkage Steel
Ast = 0.002 x b x hf
= 0.002 x 12 x 5 = 0.12 sq in
S =0.11 x 12 /0.12 = 11 in c/c
10 Maximum spacing for main steel in one way slab
according to ACI is minimum of:
3hf =3 5 =15 in or 18 in
Therefore 6 spacing is O.K.

11 Maximum spacing for shrinkage steel in one way

slab
according to ACI 7.12.2 is minimum of:
5hf =5 5 =25in or 18in
Therefore 9 in spacing is O.K.
Design of Room Slab
12 Span ratio = 16/12 = 1.33 < 2 two-way slab
Min h = Perimeter/180
= 2 x ( 16 + 12 ) x 12 /180
= 3.73 in not less than 5 in Aci
hf = 5 in is ok.
13 Wu= 0.211 ksf
14 Tables to be consulted for design
m = short span/long span
= 12/16 = 0.75
Since slab is continuous on long edge only; case 6
would apply
Coefficient for this slab
Ca,neg = 0.088
Cb,neg = 0
Ca,dl
= 0.o48
Cb,dl = 0.012
Ca,ll
= 0.055
Cb,ll
= 0.016
15 Calculate Bending moment

16Total design Moments

Max negative BM in Short direction(12 ft) = 32.04 in k

long
(16 ft) = 0 in k
max positve BM in short Direction (12 ft ) =18.36 in-k

long

(16 ft ) = 8.544 in-k

17Design of Slab
As min= 0.002x12x5 =0.12 sq in
Mu(min) = 0.9x0.12x40{(4 0.12x40/(1.7x3x12)}
= 19.94 in-k
Neg ative BM in Short span = # 3 @ 4.5 in c/c
Positive BM in short span = # 3 @ 9.0 in c/c
Negative BM in long span = nil
Positve BM in long span
= # 3 @ 11 in c/c not to be
greater than 2xhf = 2x5=10 in as per ACI 13.3.2 may reduce to
9 in spacing for simplicity.
18
Min Reinforcement is also provided at discont edges
against partial fixations

Reinforcement
Plan

Example
2

The floor system shown in Fig. consists of solid slabs and

beams in two directions supported on 20-in. square columns.
Design a typical interior slab pannel to carry a live load of
100 psf appart from self weight. Use f`c = 3 ksi and fy = 60
ksi.
Solution
Since slab is supported on beams, we determine its thickness.
To apply the equation of ACI we need to find out Ib and Is
etc. Effective X-Sec of T beam is Shown in fig.

The moment of inertia of the slab in the long direction

assuming slab thickness of 7 in

The moment of inertia of the slab in the short direction

Eq.
9.12
-------Eq. 9.13
---------

Also, hmin = 3.5 in. Therefore, h = 6.27 in.

controls. A slab thickness of 6.5 in. or 7.0 in.
may be adopted. Note that in most practical
cases, Eq. 17.2 controls.

3. Span ratio = 20/24

= 0.83 two-way slab
thickness of slab
= 7 in
4. Factored Load
Wu = 1.2x(7/12x.15) + 1.6x0.1
= 0.265 k/sq ft
5. Coefficient from Tables ( Case 2 )
Ca neg = 0.062
Cb neg =0.029
Ca dl = 0.053
Cb dl = 0.012
Ca ll = 0.039
Cb ll =0.018
6. Bending Moments
Ma neg = 0.062x0.265x20x20x12
= 78.86
in-k
Ma pos = (0.053x0.105+0.039x0.16)x20x20x12
= 56.66
in-k
Mb neg =0.029x0.265x24x24x12
= 53.12
in-k
Mb pos =(0.012x0.105+0.018x0.16)x24x24
= 28.62
in-k
7. Design of slab
in short dir for neg moment
As= 0.228 sq in #4 @ 10 in
c/c

pos
As= 0.161
#4 @
14
In long dir for neg moment
As= 0.166
#4 @ 14

pos
As= 0.088
#4 @
14
Max spacing = 2xhf = 14 in or temp & shrinkage rft
Temp= 0.0018xbxhf =0.151 sq in
#4 @ 15 in c/c
Max spacing of 14 in c/c governs

TABLE. 1
COEFFICIENTS FOR NEGATIVE
MOMENTS IN SLABS

*A
cross-hatched
edge
indicates
that
the
slab
continues across or is fixed at
the support; an unmarked
edge indicates a support at
which torsional resistance is
negligible ie simple support

* where w = total uniform

Factored dead plus live
load

TABLE.2
COEFFICIENTS FOR
DEAD LOAD POSITIVE
MOMENTS IN SLABS

*A
cross-hatched
edge
indicates
that
the
slab
continues across or is fixed at
the support; an unmarked
edge indicates a support at
which torsional resistance is
negligible ie simple support.
*

* where w = total uniform

Factored dead plus live load

TABLE.3
COEFFICIENTS FOR LIVE
LOAD
POSITIVE MOMENTS IN
SLABS

*A
cross-hatched
edge
indicates
that
the
slab
continues across or is fixed at
the support; an unmarked
edge indicates a support at
which torsional resistance is
negligible ie simple support.
*

* where w = total uniform

Factored dead plus live load

TABLE.4
RATIO OF LOAD lV IN A AND B
DIRECTIONS FOR SHEAR IN
SLAB AND LOAD ON SUPPORTS

*A
cross-hatched
edge
indicates
that
the
slab
continues across or is fixed at
the support; an unmarked
edge indicates a support at
which torsional resistance is
negligible ie simple support.