LECTURE-12

PROCESSING OF PLASTICS
- Classification, Raw Materials

NIKHIL R. DHAR, Ph. D

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering
BUET

Plastics
There are two types of plastics: Thermosets and Thermoplastics.
Thermosets are NOT recyclable because they undergo a permanent chemical change
when heated. This is known as heat hardening.
Thermoplastics are recyclable because they only undergo temporary physical change
when heated. When the heat is removed, they return to their original state. This is known
as heat softening.

There are a wide variety of manufacturing processes that exist for plastic
production. These processes include: extrusion, lamination, thermal form,
foaming, molding, expansion, solid-phase forming, casting and spinning. Within
the molding processes, there are five different methods: Compression, transfer,
blow, rotational and injection.
The two different materials are used for the different processes. For example,
Thermoplastics are usually used in Injection Molding, Extrusion, Blow Molding,
Calendering whereas, thermosets are usually used in Compression Molding,
High Pressure Lamination, and Reaction Injection Molding
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Plastics
Advantages

Light Weight
High Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Complex Parts - Net Shape
Variety of Colors (or Clear)
Corrosion Resistant
Electrical and thermal Insulation
High Damping Coefficient
Low pressures and temperature required

Disadvantages

Creep
Thermally Unstable- can not withstand Extreme Heat
U-V Light Sensitive
Relatively low stiffness
Relatively low strength
Difficult to Repair/Rework
Difficult to Sort/Recycle

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Processing of Plastics
There are a wide variety of manufacturing processes that exist for plastic
production. A wide variety of plastic manufacturing processes exist

Extrusion
Lamination (Calendaring)
Thermoforming
Casting
Molding
Compression Molding
Transfer Molding
Rotational Molding
Reaction Injection Molding
Blow Molding
Injection Molding
Expansion
Foaming
Spinning
Solid-Phase Forming

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Extrusion
One of the most common process for creating plastic for further processing is
extrusion. The Extrusion process combines color pigments and performance
additives with resin by pushing it through rotating screws. The heat and pressure
produced within the screw barrels disperses and melts the ingredients into
homogeneous molten mixture. At the end of the mixture is usually cool die. The
mixture is pushed through the die and onto the finishing operation such as
pelletizing, calendaring, or molding. The pictorial of the process is shown here.

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Lamination (Calendering)
In calendering, sheets of plastic are laminated together by rolling through heated
roller. Basically, warm or molten plastic (usually from an extruder) is fed through
a series of heated rolls as in this figure. The gaps between the rolls determine the
final sheet size. Each additional roll would reduce the sheet thickness further.
Then, once the laminated sheet is the correct thickness, the sheet is then stripped
off.
Schematicillustrationofcalendering.
Sheetsproducedbythisprocessare
subsequentlyusedinthermoforming.

ReinforcedplasticcomponentsforaHonda
motorcycle.Thepartsshownarefrontandrear
forks,arearswingarm,awheel,andbrakedisks.
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Thermoforming
In thermoforming, a plastic sheet is heated in an oven to the sag point but not to
the melting point. The sheet is then removed from the oven and placed over a mold
and through the application of a vacuum is pulled against the mold.
Typical parts are advertising signs, refrigerator liners, packaging, appliance
housings, and panels for shower stalls. The parts cannot have openings or holes or
the vacuum cannot be maintained.
The sheets used for thermoforming are made using the calendaring process.

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Casting
Casting used for both thermosetting and thermoplastic materials. Basically, casting
places plastic in a mold then hardens it into a rigid article or form.
In potting, the plastic is cast around a part, and the case becomes part of the final
component. In encapsulation, the component is covered with plastic and the
component and plastic are ejected from the mold. Both processes are used
extensively in electronics for insulation and dielectric properties

Schematicillustrationof(a)casting,
(b)potting,(c)encapsulationof
plastics.
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Molding
Molding is the most common plastic forming or finishing method. There are many
different methods in plastic molding. Methods for molding include:

Compression Molding
Transfer Molding
Rotational Molding
Reaction Injection Molding
Blow Molding
Injection Molding

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Compression Molding
In compression molding, a preshaped part, a pre-measured powder
or a viscous mixture of liquid resin is
placed directly in a heated mold.
Forming is done under pressure with
a plug or the upper half of the die.
Compression molding is similar to
forging, and has the same problem
with flash.
Typical parts are dishes, handles,
container caps, fittings, electrical and
electronic
components,
washing
machine agitators and housings.
Fiber reinforced plastics may also be
formed by this process, though
mainly thermoset plastics are used.

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Typesofcompressionmolding,aprocesssimilarto
forging:(a)positive,(b)semipositive,and(c)flash.The
flashinpart(c)hastobetrimmedoff.(d)Diedesignfor
makingacompressionmoldedpartwithundercuts.
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Transfer Molding
Transfer molding is a further development of compression molding. The
thermosetting material is heated and then injected into a heated, closed mold.
Pressure is applied somehow to force the material into the mold. The flow process
heats the material and homogenizes it. Curing takes place by cross linking. Typical
parts include electrical and electronic components and rubber and silicone parts.

Sequenceofoperationsintransfermoldingforthermosettingplastics.Thisprocessisparticularly
suitableforintricatepartswithvaryingwallthickness.
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Rotational Molding
Rotational molding is used for large plastic
parts. The thin-walled metal mold is a split
female mode made of two pieces and is
designed to be rotated about two
perpendicular axes. A premeasured quantity
of finely ground plastic material is placed
inside a warm mold. The mold is then heated,
usually in a large oven, while it is rotated
about the two axes. The action tumbles the
powder against the mold where heating fuses
the power without melting it. In some cases, a
cross linking agent is added to the powder,
and cross linking occurs after the part is
formed in the mold by continued heating.
Typical parts are tanks, trash cans, boat hulls,
buckets, housings, toys, carrying cases, and
footballs. Various metallic or plastic inserts
may also be molded into the parts.
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Therotationalmolding(rotomoldingor
rotocasting)process.Trashcans,buckets,and
plasticfootballscanbemadebythisprocess.

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Reaction Injection Molding

In reaction-injection molding (RIM), a mixture of two or more reactive fluids is forced
under high pressure into the mold cavity. Chemical reactions take place rapidly in the
mold and the polymer solidifies, producing a thermoset part. Major applications are
automotive bumpers and fenders, thermal insulation for refrigerators and freezers, and
stiffeners for structural components. Initial injection pressures typically are much lower
than traditional injection molding.

Schematicillustrationofthereactioninjectionmoldingprocess.
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Blow Molding (Bottles)

Blow molding is a modified extrusion and injection molding process, wherein a
tube is extruded (usually turned so that it is vertical) and clamped into a mold with
a cavity much larger than the tube diameter. Air is blown inside the tube opening
and the plastic expands to fill the mold cavity shape. Blow molding is similar to
blowing up a balloon inside a bottle. Mostly, blow molding forms hollow plastic
parts with relatively thin walls. Examples of blow molding products are bottles,
bumpers, bags and ducting.

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Blow Molding (Plastic Bags)

Here is a picture of a the blow molding process for plastic bags. The tube is raised
and the plastic bag is blown to size. Then pinch rollers compress the bag for further
packaging.

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Injection Molding
The last and more popular process is injection molding. This process is used to
form complex plastic parts. Typical injection molded parts are fittings, containers,
bottle tops, housings, and much more. Here is a pictorial of a typical injection
molding machine and part. It is the most common of the plastic forming processes
today, accounting for approximately 30% of all plastics produced.

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Basic working of injection molding is as follows- plastic material is heated to the

glass transition point (or beyond) and pressurized. The mold is closed. Pressurized
plastic melt is forced into the mold. The mold remains closed while part hardens.
Upon cooling, the mold opens, the part is removed and the process repeats.
The key points to this are getting the plastic to fill the mold and keeping it there,
and then ejecting the part after it has solidified.
To help ensure good fill, you must employ good fluid flow principles when
designing the cavity. This means one should fill the parts from thick to thin. In
other words put the plastic in the thickest section and let it flow to the thinner
sections. Also, one should try to avoid sharp corners in the runner system. In
addition, after the part is filled, the packing pressure is maintained so the part will
not shrink away from the wall during solidification.
Another key design consideration is the process of ejecting the part. The part
should hang on the moving side as it retracts pulling free of the fixed side. Then
ejector pins push the part out of the moving side mold. To allow for ejection, one
must include some taper or draft in the part. Typically, this is between 0.5 o to 3o.

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Injection Mold Layout: The plastic melt flows from the injection nozzles and
enters the mold at the sprue. From the sprue the plastic flows into the runners and
ultimately through the gates into the part. Gate and runner design is an important
part of the mold design. To help ensure that the mold fills completely, one should
balance the mold so that all cavities fill at the same time. When the cavities are the
same, a symmetric layout is used. If the cavities are all markedly different, often
the gates and runners must be sized/shaped differently in order to allow all cavities
to fill in the same amount of time.

Spru
e
Gate

Mold
Cavity

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Runner

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Plunger Type Injection Molding Press: In this molding press, the plastic is
fed into the mold when a cylinder plunger extends and forces the plastic into the
mold. After the plunger retracts more material can be fed from the hopper to the
shooting pot. (Thus the stroke of the plunger determines the additional material
fed in each time.) Of course the shooting pot is long enough to hold several shots,
so the plastics stays in the pot for a while, giving the band heaters time to heat and
melt the plastic. Notice the torpedo, which is basically an obstruction to the
plastic flow in the shooting pot. As the plastic moves around the torpedo, it is
better mixed.
Hopper
Torpedo

Nozzle
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Shooting Pot

Plunger

Band Heaters
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Screw Type Injection Presses: The original plunger type has had one important
modification. A reciprocating screw now forces material into the mold. This screw action
ensures that the same amount of material is always metered in, and it is equally dense along
the length of the screw. Additionally the material will be much better mixed by the screw
action which helps to maintain better consistency from shot to shot. Since the screw action
generally helps to pack the material in better, a given plunger travel will push more material
into the cavity. Finally the action of the screw, as it rotates and mixes, adds energy to the
melt. However, band heaters are still needed to fully heat the melt.
All of this results in a much better and more consistent part. This is why the screw press is
essentially the only press found in industry. Small plunger presses are still made for
prototype/lab purposes.
Hopper
Nozzle

Band Heaters
Screw meters plastic,
plunger provides pressure

Shooting Pot
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Reciprocating Screw
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Injection Molding Screws: The injection molding screw plunges forward to

provide holding and packing pressure. The screw rotates as it retracts to meter and
plasticize the melt. The screw is broken up into 3 regions. The Feed Section
draws material from the hopper & starts movement into the shooting pot. In this
section, channels between the flights are deep and the depth is constant. The next
section, called the Transition Section, compresses and melts the plastic pellets.
Most plasticization occurs in this section. The root diameter tapers, causing the
channel depth to decrease. In the last section, the Metering Section, the correct
fill is precisely measured out. This section has a constant channel depth.

Feed
Section

Transition
Section

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Metering
Section
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Screw Configuration Design: There are a number of design variations that can
be made to the injection molding screw configuration. The extruder screws are
composed of various screw segments connected together to create a complete
configuration design.

Dulmage Mixing Section: Some the segments used in plastic extrusions are the
dulmage mixing segment and mixing pins segment. The Dulmage Mixing design is used
at the end of the screw to enhance mixing. Usually, several sections are put together.

Mixing Pins: Another configuration option are the mixing pins. These are usually
inserted between the final flights to enhance the mixing.

Dulmage Mixing Section

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Mixing Pins

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Vented Barrels: Vented barrels with two stage screws are another options in some
design. The first stage meters and compresses the material. Then, the material is vented,
compressed and metered forward in the second stage.

Material
from
Hopper

Vent

Vented Barrels

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Barrier Flight Screws: In Barrier flight screws, the channel is split into two
sections: one for solids and one for the melted plastic. The barrier flight is not
quite as large as the primary flight. The barrier flight has small passage for the melt
to flow from the solid channels into the melt channels. The solid channel becomes
smaller and the melt larger along the length of the screw. The functioning of the
barrier flight is shown here.
Melt Channel

Primary
Flight

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Solids Channel

Barrier
Flight

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Press Parameters: Generally, there are three common parameters used to

describe the injection molding press capacity: clamping force, shot size, and
injection pressure.

Clamping force is usually the most common method to refer to the injection molding
press capacity. Thus, presses are talked about as being 20 ton, 50 ton, etc. The clamping
force is the force available to hold the platens together. The platens contains the mold
cavities. Clamping can be achieved using in-line hydraulic cylinders, mechanical
toggle clamps, or a combination of the two (called hydro-mechanical).

Shot size is the amount of material that can be transferred into the mold in one shot.
Shot sizes are usually specified in cubic centimeters or ounces.

Injection pressure is the pressure at the sprue that forces or injects the plastic melt into
the mold. Specification by this parameter refers to the maximum injection pressure.

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Clamping Mechanisms: There are a few different ways to provide the clamping
force for the mold. The in-line hydraulic cylinder provides good force control,
but requires large hydraulics that tend to be slow. The toggle clamps move quickly
but provide poor force control. The hydro-mechanical clamping system is a
combination of the two clamps. It uses a toggle mechanism for most of the travel
and then uses the hydraulic cylinder for the locking force.

Hydraulic
Cylinder

Toggle
Clamp

Hydraulic
Cylinder
In line hydraulic cylinder
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Toggle Clamp
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Injection Molding Defects

Injection molding can create defects on the finished product. Some of the more
common Injection molding defects are

Short Shot
Flashing
Weld Lines
Jetting
Ejector Pin Marks
Sink Marks
Warpage/Residual Stresses

When designing for a part and the associated mold, one should keep these defects
in mind as well as the fundamental objectives of filling, holding, packing and
removing the part.

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Short Shot: Short shot occurs when there is insufficient material to fill the mold
cavity and/or the material solidifies too soon. It has several causes, including
insufficient injection pressure, or insufficient time allowed during the injection
process. Sometimes the material will freeze in a given section before it can reach
the edges of the mold.
Unfilled
Section
of Mold

Unfilled
Sections
of Mold

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Flashing: Flashing occurs when there is too much material and it pushes its way
out of the die; basically, the material overflows the cavity. This can be caused by
too much injection pressure, too much injection time, or insufficient clamping
force. It also can be caused by a poorly machined die that does not properly seal
off the cavity.
Flash

Plastic Pushes
into Area Between
Mating Surfaces

Flash

Cavity
Wall

Part Moderate-Heavy Flash

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Weld Lines: Weld lines occur when flow fronts meet in the mold. In addition to
being aesthetically unappealing, weld lines decrease the strength of the part. The
cooler the fronts are when they meet, the less the plastic will be able to meld
together; thus, the weld lines are more pronounced and the part is much weaker at
this point. The amount of plastic that cools is directly related to how far it must
travel. For this reason, multiple gates are sometimes used on parts with solid
cores. There will be more weld lines, but each one will be stronger. Additionally,
weld lines are much more pronounced if flow fronts are moving in completely
opposite directions, as opposed to when the flow fronts share some components of
velocity. When the flow fronts are at least partially moving together, mixing is
enhanced.
Generally, weld lines should be avoided if possible. For example, the solid square
pictured here, should be gated in one place to reduce the number of weld lines.
If you have a part with a solid core, as with the second example, weld lines are
unavoidable. However, things can be done to maximize the knitting and thus
minimize the weld line defect. For instance, one can keep the sections hotter when
they meet.
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Canresultfrompoorgateplacement

Unavoidablew/SolidCores
Gate

Gate

Gate

Weld
Line

Weld Line
Weld lines are more pronounced if melt is cooler when fronts meet.
Also if flow fronts are moving into one another (butt weld, or weld
as opposed to streaming weld, or meld).

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Jetting: Jetting is generally caused when one gates a part in such a way that the
material flow enters an open section with much space between the gate and the
opposite wall. When the flow area is squeezed through the gate, the velocity
increases, and the plastic melt shoots into the empty cavity mold. If there is
nothing to break its path, it will shoot all the way through to the opposite wall,
where it will quickly solidify. Successive incoming material streams then fold over
the previously frozen stream, and the stream lines become locked into place. Often
air pockets can be trapped in between the successive folds and further folds do not
fully join creating a weaker part.
To reduce the risk of jetting, one should always gate the part so that incoming
material flow is directed into a nearby wall. After the stream has impinged on the
wall, the plastic melt will spread in the appropriate fashion. Melt moves rapidly,
cools unevenly and traps flow lines.

Jetting
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Alternate gating
eliminates jetting
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Ejector Pin Marks: Once the part is sufficiently cooled, the cavity opens and
ejector pins push the part out. The pins usually leave marks in the area where the
ejector pins pushed the part. There are four different possible causes of the pin
marks:
1) the pin is above the flush line,
2) the pin is below the flush line,
3) there is clearance around the pin and
4) material is too soft at ejection and one pushes through the part.
Ejector pin marks are virtually unavoidable. It is almost impossibly to have the pin
surface be perfectly even with that of the cavity wall. However, one can minimize
the severity by trying to get the pins as flush with the cavity wall as is possible.
Also, there should be very little clearance between the ejector pins and the holes in
the die cavity, otherwise the plastic will flash around the ejector pins. Since some
level of defect is unavoidable, one should take care to hide the pin marks as best as
possible in inconspicuous places of the mold.
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1) Pin above flush

2) Pin below flush

3) Clearance around pin

4)

One tries to eject the part before it solidifies and pins push through the part.

Place the ejector pins on hidden areas of the part.

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Sink Marks: Sink marks are also common injection molding flaws. They are
caused by excessively thick sections or abrupt changes in thickness.
The pressure level in the cavity is fairly high during the injection. After the gate
freezes, the pressure drops sharply. The walls in the thick and thin sections cool.
However, the material in the center of the thicker sections cools slower than that in
the thinner sections. Thus plastic in the thick sections is still molten after
everything else, including the gate, is frozen. When the plastic melt in the thick
section solidifies in the absence of any packing pressure, it will shrink away from
the wall, causing sink marks.
To reduce and in some cases eliminate sink marks, one should try to minimize or
remove material from excessively thick sections. In general, it is good design
practice to core out thick sections and use ribs for added support. In the example
to the left, notice all the cross-hatched areas. This is the material that is removed in
the improved design. Note that these principles also help to eliminate residual
stresses as well.
Of course in some cases sink marks are unavoidable. For example when using ribs
for support, there is a thick section where the rib meets the wall. In these cases,
sink marks are often masked by surface textures or by intentionally designing
grooves
in the surface.
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of Industrial
& Production Engineering
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Thick sections cause

sink marks
Bad
Design

Improved
Design

When unavoidable, sink marks can be masked by surface texture

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Warpage/Residual Stresses: Warpage is the out of plane distortion of an

injection molded part, generated by constraining the part while cooling. Warpage
is typically caused by anisotropic shrinkage. Several causes for anisotropic
shrinkage are: Variations in thickness, Differing shrink rates due to melt
orientation, Uneven cooling, Differences in the mold cavity pressure.
If the part is massive enough to resist warpage, residual stresses will result. Since
gates are usually highly oriented and have extremely fast cooling rates, residual
stresses are always present near the gates.

Suggested design changes to

minimize distortion

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Less Common Methods

Expansion

expandable polystyrene bead fill mold and bond (steam)

Foaming
liquid chemicals
combine & cure (isocynate polyal)

Spinning
produces plastic fibers
similar to extrusion

Solid Phase Form

forming plastic below glass temperature
similar to stamping or forging

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Common Polymers
ABS (Acrylanitrile Butadiene Styrene): amorphous, good Impact Strength, excellent
appearance, easy to process computer housings, small appliances, automotive interior, & medical
components
Acrylic: amorphous polymers, excellent clarity, excellent weatherability optical & outdoor
applications
Cellulosics: among the first thermoplastics developed: smell funny, very flammable
Nylon 6: semi-crystalline polymer, good cost to performance ratio, lower numbered nylons, 6 ,6-6,
4-6, absorb moisture and change their properties as a result
Polycarbonate: amorphous material, excellent Impact Strength, clarity, & optical properties
currently long lead times for this material.
Polyethylene High Density: widely used, inexpensive, thermoplastic, easy to process, good to
excellent chemical resistance, soft & not for use above 150 F
Polypropylene: semi-crystalline material, low temperature material, excellent chemical resistance
difficult to mold to extremely close tolerances
Polystyrene High Impact (HIPS): few cents more than crystal styrene, to pay for the rubber
modifier, opaque & very widely used, lower modulus, better elongation, & less brittle than crystal
styrene
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride Rigid: properties similar to ABS (except appearance) at a slightly
reduced cost primarily for water pipe and pipe fittings, occasionally for electrical enclosures *in
plastic phase PVC is corrosive to molds & machines (non corrosive as a solid)
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Shaping Processes for Thermoplastics

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Shaping Processes for Thermosets

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Sheet Molding

The manufacturing process for producing reinforced-plastic sheets. The

sheet is still viscous at this stage; it can later be shaped into various products.
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Prepregs

(a)

(b)

(a) Manufacturing process for polymer-matrix composite (b) Boron-epoxy prepreg tape.
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Examples of Molding Processes

(a) Vacuum-bag forming. (b) Pressure-bag forming.

Manual methods of processing reinforced plastics: (a) hand lay-up and (b) spray-up. These methods are
also called open-mold processing.
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Pultrusion

Schematic illustration of the pultrusion process.

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