Dr.

Amit Gupta
[email protected]

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

While deciding about the method of data collection to be

used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two
types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and
for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
The secondary data are that which have already been
collected by someone else and which already has been
passed through statistical processes.
The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he
would be using (thus collecting) for his study and
accordingly he will have to select one or the other method
of data collection.

Comparison between primary data and secondary data

PRIMARY DATA

SECONDARY DATA

1.

These are first-hand original

data collected by research
through various methods.

These are second-hand ready-made

data collected by some other agency
but not by the researcher.

2.

Collection is time and cost

consuming. It is complicated
too.
Sources of primary data are the
sampling units chosen.

Easy and quick collection at less

cost.

Primary data are reliable and

accurate when properly
collected.
Primary data affect the research
directly.

Supplementary to primary data.

Primary data are latest useful

for current problems.

Secondary data are historical.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Sources could be internal or

external records.

They provide secondary

information.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data is data that has been collected by others

for another purpose. It is important to us because it can
save considerable time and effort in solving the
research problem at hand. Researchers should always
conduct a thorough data search in the development and
execution of any research programme.

USES OF SECONDARY DATA

The uses of secondary data can be conveniently arranged

into the following four categories:

Problem recognition: A constant monitoring of secondary

data can provide the impetus for problem recognition.
Moreover, exploratory studies maybe initiated to identify
future opportunities or weaknesses in the firm's current
operations.

Problem clarification: Secondary data can also fruitfully be

used to help clarify the specific problem that we may be
facing. Here, clarification usually means making the
decision problem more reachable by delineating the
components of the situation. Another related use of
secondary data is that they can help plan the study design
and provide information to write the research proposal.

Formulation of feasible alternatives: Alternatives must exist

before decision-making can take place. Secondary data are
very useful in generating viable alternatives to solve
problems. The multiplicity of data sources, research
approaches and managerial styles usually lead to a number
of possibilities which should be examined by the
researcher.

Problem solution: Not only are secondary data helpful in

the definition and development of a problem, they are
often sufficient in and of themselves, to generate a
problem's solution.

ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

The major advantage of secondary data is economy. As the
data are already available, they can be obtained at a
relatively low cost.
The secondary data can be obtained quickly.
The secondary data enable the researchers to identify the
deficiencies in the data and make primary data collection
specific.
They are useful in the case of exploratory researches as they
provide increased understanding of the problem.
They act as a basis for comparison after primary data are
collected.
They provide for data which cannot obtained by the
typical organization like census reports.

LIMITATIONS OF SECONDARY DATA

The available data may not suit the current purpose of

research, due to incompleteness, generalities and so
on.
Information may be outdated or obsolete.
The methodology used in collecting the data such as
the sample size, date of the research, etc., may be
unknown.
All the findings of a research study may not be made
public.
Conflicting data may exist.
It may be difficult to determine the accuracy of the
secondary data.

EVALUATING SECONDARY DATA

The researcher before using any secondary data has to
satisfy himself as to their accuracy and reliability. He has
to evaluate secondary data on the following considerations:

Availability: At times, one may find that secondary data

are just not available on the problem at hand. The
secondary data must be available for use.

Relevance: Relevance means that the data available must

fit the requirements of that problem. This would cover
several aspects. First, the unit of measurement should be
the same as that in the marketing problem. Second, the
concepts should be the same as are envisaged in the
problem. Also, the data should not be obsolete.

Accuracy: In this regard, one should consult the

original source. This would not only give
comprehensive information but would also indicate
the context in which data have been collected, the
procedure followed and the extent of care exercised
in their collection.
Sufficiency: Finally, the data should be sufficient. If
the data are inadequate, then compliance with the
preceding requirements will be in vain.

Sources of Secondary Data

Internal
Internal sources can be classified under four broad
categories-

Accounting records,
Sales force reports,
Miscellaneous reports and
Internal experts.

Accounting records:
These generate a good deal of data. As profits are
based on sales, sales invoice is a good source.
Such information can be extremely useful in
undertaking a detailed analysis of sales by
product, customer, industry, geographic area,
sales territory and sales representative.
Compared with corresponding data on costs, it
can indicate the level of profits (or loss) for each
product.

Sales force reports:

This source can provide very useful marketing
information but somehow it has remained largely
untapped.
This is because sales persons may not be giving
detailed reports. In order to ensure that this source is
more useful, it is necessary to organize the system
properly.
It should be a simple process of reporting the
information.
Sales persons may be encouraged to provide accurate
and comprehensive information. Some incentive may
be given to those who report accurately and
adequately.

Miscellaneous reports:
Any studies done earlier on marketing problems of
the company, special audit, etc. come in this category.
Such reports on varying subjects should be properly
maintained and easily accessible when required.
Experts:
Experts working in the company can also be a good
source of internal data.
However, this source is least tapped. A limitation of
this source is that information is in the experts mind
and not on paper.
The experts can provide useful information or ideas
on a given marketing problem whenever a serious
discussion is held in a meeting.

External Sources
The external secondary data do not originate in
the firm and are obtained from outside sources.
It may be noted that secondary data can be
collected from the originating sources or from,
secondary sources.
For example, the Office of the Economic Adviser,
Government of India, is the originating source for
the data on wholesale prices.
In contrast, a publication such as the Reserve
Bank of India Bulletin containing some parts of
the series of wholesale prices is a secondary
source.

Government Publications: A large bulk of secondary

data useful to a marketing researcher is found in
various government publications. The data relate to
various characteristic such as the break-up of
population by sex, rural urban residence, age,
education and occupation. While it is true that these
statistics are available only decennially, they are the
most authentic and are often used as the basis for
projection for future years.

The Central Statistical Organization (CSO)

The Director General of Commercial Intelligence,
The Wholesale Price Index numbers
All-India Consumer Price Index numbers

Some other official publications include

the:

Basic Statistics relating to the Indian Economy,

Reserve Bank of India Bulletin,
Currency Finance Report,
The Economic Survey,
Agricultural Situation in India,
The Indian Labour Journal,
The Indian Labour Year Book,
State Statistical Abstracts and District Statistical
Handbooks,
National Sample Survey (NSS),

Non-government Publications:

National Council of Applied Economic Research

(NCAER),
The Marketing Whitebook published by Business
World.
The R.K Swamy BBDO Guide to Urban Markets
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and
Industry (FICCI)

Collection of Primary Data

Observation
Observation is one of the methods of collecting
data. It is used to get both past and current
information. For example, instead of asking
respondents about their current behaviour, we
may observe it and record our observations.
Although it is not possible to observe past
behaviour, we may observe the results of such
behaviour. In a way, secondary data reflect the
results of the past behaviour of people as also of
past occurrences.
In marketing research, the observational method
is not used frequently.

Advantages of observation
Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately.
It enables a researcher to record behaviour as it occurs.
The information obtained is not complicated by either
the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
It can be used regardless of whether the respondent is
willing to report or not. In a field survey, if an
enumerator comes across an unwilling and hostile
respondent, he cannot collect the desired information.
But, this problem does not arise at all in the case of
direct observation.
It can be used even when it pertains to those who are
unable to respond such as infants and animals.

Limitations of observation
The information provided by this method is very
limited.
The current behaviour of a person or a group of persons
can only be observed. One is not able to observe the
past behaviour nor can one observe a persons future
behaviour because the act of observation takes place in
the present.
Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task. For example, inaccessibility of
people to be observed.
The method is very slow and expensive. As such, when
a large number of persons are to be contacted, it
becomes unsuitable.

Methods of Observation

Structured-unstructured Observation
Structured observation is used when the research problem
has been formulated precisely and the observers have been
told specifically what is to be observed. They may be given
a simple form to record their observations. They are
considered appropriate in descriptive studies.
Unstructured observation implies that observers are free to
observe whatever they think is relevant and important.
While structured observations are free from subjective bias,
unstructured observations are subject to this limitation. The
extent of the bias may vary to the extent an observation is
unstructured.

Participant-non participant observation

When the observer observes the group by becoming a
part of the group so that he can experience what the
members of the group experience, the observation is
called participant observation.
In non-participant observation, the observer observes as
a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to
experience through participation what others feel.

Controlled-uncontrolled Observation
Observations in field studies are in their natural
setting and are, therefore, called controlled
observation. The major aim of this type of
observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life
and persons.
Uncontrolled observations are observations in a
laboratory setting, on the other hand, enables the
observer to control extraneous variables which
influence the behaviour of people. Observational
studies in laboratory settings enable the collection of
data promptly and economically and in addition,
permit the use of more objective measurements.

Direct-Indirect Observation
In the case of direct observation, the event or the
behaviour of a person is observed as it occurs.
In contrast, indirect observation implies that some
record of past behaviour is observed.
In other words, the behaviour itself is not observed,
rather its effects are observed. An observer engaged
in indirect observation generally looks for physical
traces of behaviour or occurrence of an event.
It may be noted that the success of an indirect
observation largely depends on how best the
observer is able to identify physical traces of the
problem under study.

INTERVIEW METHOD

The interview method of collecting data involves

presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses.
This method can be used through personal interviews
(like depth interviews),
focus group interviews and,
if possible, through telephone interviews.

Personal interviews
Personal interview method requires a person known as
the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-toface contact to the other person or persons.
The method of collecting information through personal
interviews is usually carried out in a structured way.

Structured interviews.
Such interviews involve the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly standardized
techniques of recording.
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking
questions in a form and order prescribed.

Unstructured Interviews
characterized by a flexibility of approach to
questioning.
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of predetermined questions and standardized techniques of
recording information.
In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is
allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit
certain questions if the situation so requires.
He may even change the sequence of questions.

Depth interviews
When a researcher is interested in in-depth investigation of
perceptions, attitudes or motivations of the respondents, an
unstructured interview called Depth Interview is conducted. On
account of their flexibility, such interviews help a researcher in
asking probing questions to secure as much information as
possible. A procedure similar to that used by a psychiatrist is
followed. The researcher asks such questions as are appropriate
without any formal questionnaire with him.
For example:
What make of Electric Scooter did you buy?
Did you compare different scooters before buying a Lohia?
What has been your experience with it?
Is it easy to maintain?
Is it reliable on busy roads?
Are you satisfied with its performance?
Thus, the researcher will continue asking questions till he is
satisfied.

Focus-Group interviews
In this method, the interviewer collects a small number
(say about 8 people) of representative consumers for
discussion on a particular subject. A group smaller than
this proves to be insufficient for a focus group. A
group, say 10-12 people, is regarded as too large as the
people have to wait for long for their turn to come.

Major advantages of personal interviews are as follows:

More information and that too in greater depth can be
obtained.
Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the
resistance, if any, of the respondents.
There is greater flexibility under this method as the
opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
especially in case of unstructured interviews.
Observation method can as well be applied to recording
verbal answers to various questions.
Personal information can as well be obtained easily
under this method.

Samples can be controlled more effectively as there

arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response
generally remains very low.
The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will
answer the questions.
The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and
thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions than
would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
The language of the interview can be adapted to the
ability or educational level of the person interviewed
and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can
be avoided.
The interviewer can collect supplementary information
about the respondents personal characteristics and
environment which is often of great value in interpreting
results.

Weaknesses of personal interview method are as

follows:
It is a very expensive method, especially when large
and widely spread geographical sample is taken.
There remains the possibility of the bias of
interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there
also remains the headache of supervision and
control of interviewers.
Certain types of respondents such as important
officials or executives or people in high income
groups may not be easily approachable under this
method and to that extent the data may prove
inadequate.

This method is relatively more-time-consuming,

especially when the sample is large.
The presence of the interviewer on the spot may
over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to
the extent that he may give imaginary information
just to make the interview interesting.
Under the interview method the organization
required for selecting, training and supervising the
field-staff is more complex with formidable
problems.
Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with
respondents that would facilitate free and frank
responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

For successful implementation of a personal interview:

the interviewers should be carefully selected, trained
and briefed. They should be honest, sincere,
hardworking, and impartial and must possess the
technical competence and necessary practical
experience.

occasional field checks should be made to ensure that

interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from
instructions given to them for performing their job
efficiently.

some provision should also be made in advance so that

appropriate action may be taken if some of the selected
respondents refuse to cooperate or are not available
when an interviewer calls upon them.

effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere of

trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at
ease while talking to and discussing with the interviewer.
the interviewer must ask questions properly and
intelligently and must record the responses accurately
and completely. At the same time, the interviewer
must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the
respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has.
The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous,
conversational and unbiased.
the interviewer must keep the direction of interview in
his own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and
must make all possible effort to keep the respondent on
the track.

Telephone interviews
This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method,
but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.
The chief merits of such a system are:
It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information.
It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per
response is relatively low.
Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing
method; the non-response is generally very low.
Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be
contacted for one reason or the other.
No field staff is required.
Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

Demerits of telephonic interviews are as follows:

Little time is given to respondents for considered
answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five
minutes in most cases.
Surveys are restricted to respondents who have
telephone facilities.
Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by
cost considerations.
It is not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are
difficult to handle.

SCHEDULES

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data
through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by
the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These
enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the
questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and
record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.

Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also
remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding
the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of
difficult terms. The enumerators should be trained to perform their job
well. Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity
of cross examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they
should be honest, sincere, and hardworking and should have patience
and perseverance.

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.

Comparison between questionnaires and schedules

QUESTIONNAIRES
SCHEDULES
The questionnaire is generally sent through mail They are generally filled out by the research worker or the
to the informants.
enumerator.
To collect data through questionnaire is relatively To collect data through schedules is relatively more
expensive since considerable amount of money has to be
cheap and economical.
spent in appointing enumerators and in imparting training
to them.
Non-response is usually high in case of
questionnaire as many people do not respond and
many return the questionnaire without answering
all questions.
Bias due to non-response often remains
indeterminate.
Identity of respondent is unknown.
Its likely to be very slow since many respondents
do not return
the questionnaire in time despite several
reminders.
Personal contact with respondents is generally not
possible.
Can be used only when respondents are literate
and cooperative.

Non-response is generally very low in case of schedules

because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get
answers to all questions.

Wider and more representative distribution of

sample is possible.
Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong
information is relatively more.

Difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider

area.
Information collected is generally complete and accurate as
enumerators
can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in
correctly understanding the questions.

Danger of interviewer bias and cheating is always there.

Identity of respondent is known.
Information is collected well in time as they are filled in by
enumerators.
Direct personal contact is established with respondents.
Information can be gathered even when the respondents
happen to be illiterate.

11.

The success of questionnaire method lies more on The success of schedules depends upon the honesty and
the quality of the questionnaire itself.
competence of enumerators.

12.

Observation is not possible in this case.

Along with schedules, observation method can also be

used.