Instructional models

Mainly drawn from:

Instruction: a models approach, 6th edition
TH Estes, SL Mintz & MA Gunter
2011

Models
What are models?
Do we need them?
What are they there for?
Save time
Open up thinking
Inspire new ideas

Two approaches
Inductive
Starts with data and facts
Students reason in order to find definition, rule or
generalisation

Deductive
Starts with presentation of definition, rule or
generalisation + examples
Students draw inferences based on it

Direction of lesson plan

Inductive

Deductive

Principles

Principles

Generalisations

Generalisations

Concepts

Concepts

Facts

Facts

Models
(see examples on ULink)
Model

Description

Direct instruction

Deductive. Teach skills and information.

Cooperative learning

Deductive. Learning through other students.

Concept attainment

Inductive. Comprehend and analyse meaning of a concept.

Concept development

Inductive. Understanding and connecting concepts.

Personal analogy

Inductive. Explore and extend ideas.

Cause-and-effect

Inductive. Connect ideas to real-world events.

Socratic seminar

Inductive. Questions guide effective discussion of idea.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Principles
People learn by:
Observing/listening
Linking to prior knowledge
Modelling to make new connections
Feedback to correct connections

Steps in direct instruction

1. Review previous learning
2. State big idea/s and objectives/essential
questions and connect to (1)
3. Present new material
Explanation of ideas (previous lectures)
Demonstration (in case of skills)

Steps in direct instruction

1. Review previous learning
2. State big idea/s and objectives/essential
questions and connect to (1)
3. Present new material

Explanation of ideas (previous lectures)

Demonstration (in case of skills)
Continuously link to big idea
Use examples
Summarise periodically

Steps in direct instruction

4. Guide students in practice
Scaffold with guiding teacher questions

Guiding questions
Answers required = very short
Wait time?
At least 3 seconds

Responses:
Correct and firm = move on
Correct but hesitant = provide encouragement
Incorrect but careless = correct and move on
Incorrect and lacking knowledge = hint, ask
simpler question or reteach

Steps in direct instruction

4. Guide students in practice
Scaffold with guiding questions
Diagnostic and formative assessment
Feedback focused on reducing the gap

5. Independent practice with formative

assessment and feedback
6. Review the new material and connections

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Principles
People learn by
Explaining themselves
Interacting with others

Many approaches
Jigsaw model
Graffiti model
Controversy model
Student Teams-Achievement Division (STAD)

See ULink for more

Steps in jigsaw model

1. Introduce big idea/s and explain Jigsaw model
2. Assign students to expert groups and to
learning groups (variation)

Every person is part of two groups

Expert
groups

Learning
groups

A
D

Steps in jigsaw model

1. Introduce big idea/s and explain Jigsaw model
2. Assign students to expert groups and to
learning groups
3. Divide topic into equal parts and assign one
part to every expert group (pre-planning!)
Each expert group gets something to read and
discuss

4. Form expert groups to make sense of the

information together and determine how they
will explain it

Every expert group

focuses on one part

Expert
groups

Part 1

Part 2

A1

D2

B1

C1

E2

Part 3
G3

F2

H3

J3

Steps in jigsaw model

1. Introduce big idea/s and explain Jigsaw model
2. Assign students to expert groups and to learning
groups
3. Divide topic into equal parts and assign one part
to every expert group (pre-planning!)
4. Form expert groups to make sense of the
information together and determine how they
will explain it
5. Form learning groups, where experts on each
part teach the others

Every learning group

gets a different expert
Expert
groups

Learning
groups

A1

C1

B1

A1
D2 G3

G3

D2

F2

E2

B1
E2

H3

J3

H3

C1
F2

J3

Steps in jigsaw model

1. Introduce big idea/s and explain Jigsaw model
2. Assign students to expert groups and to learning
groups
3. Divide topic into equal parts and assign one part to
every expert group (pre-planning!)
4. Form expert groups to make sense of the information
together and determine how they will explain it
5. Form learning groups, where experts on each part
teach the rest
6. Assess learners on the lessons ideas

CAUSE-AND-EFFECT MODEL

Principles
People learn by
Drawing inferences
Developing hypotheses

Focused on significant action, situation,

condition or conflict
Teacher facilitates through set questions

Steps in cause-and-effect model

1. Choose action, event or condition to be
analysed

Template
1
TOPIC

Steps in cause-and-effect model

1. Choose action, event or condition to be
analysed
2. Ask for its causes. Request support. Write up

Template
2
Causes

1
TOPIC

Steps in cause-and-effect model

1. Choose action, event or condition to be
analysed
2. Ask for causes. Request support. Write up.
3. Ask for effects and support. Write up.

Template
2
Causes

1
TOPIC

3
Effects

Steps in cause-and-effect model

1. Choose action, event or condition to be
analysed
2. Ask for causes. Request support. Write up.
3. Ask for effects and support. Write up.
4. Ask for prior causes + support. Write up.
5. Ask for later effects + support. Write up.

Template
4
Prior causes

2
Causes

1
TOPIC

3
Effects

5
Later effects

Steps in cause-and-effect model

1. Choose action, event or condition to be analysed
2. Ask for causes. Request support. Write up.
3. Ask for effects and support. Write up.
4. Ask for prior causes + support. Write up.
5. Ask for later effects + support. Write up.
6. Ask what conclusions may be drawn + support.
Give an example if they struggle.
7. What lessons can we learn that can be applied to
other people or situations?

Template
4
Prior causes

6 Conclusions

7 Generalisations

2
Causes

1
TOPIC

3
Effects

5
Later effects

SOCRATIC SEMINAR

Principles
People build new understanding by:
Having dialogues
Engaging with different perspectives
Linking perspectives to prior knowledge

Dialogue among students focused on a text,

image, object or question
Not debate but reasoning together
Six Thinking Hats another example

Role of teacher
Facilitate and guide the dialogue
Preparation of questions in advance!

Types of questions
Aspects of understanding

Bloom-based

Socratic

Explanation

Remembering
(recall, restate)

Clarification

Interpretation

Understanding
(make sense, interpret)

Assumptions

Application

Applying
(use in new context)

Probe reasons

Perspective

Analysing
(break up, relationships)

Viewpoints

Empathy

Evaluating
(make decisions, reflect)

Probe implications

Self-knowledge

Creating
(develop new ideas)

About the question

Steps in Socratic seminar

1. Choose the focus (text, story, image, recording,
object)
2. Plan questions:
Identify a broad and thought-provoking opening
question related to the focus
Derive 2-3 basic questions that raise an issue and call
for taking a position (should have more than one
answer)
Develop 6-8 follow-up questions to guide discussion
around each basic question (of varying cognitive
demand)

Focus
A short article about taxi violence
Taxi drivers are shooting at other competing
taxis on the same route
Opening seminar question: is competition
really beneficial?

Opening and basic questions

Established
business

Is
competition
really all
that good?
Young
entrepreneurs

Consumers

A cluster of questions
Can
competition
help a
business?
How far should
a business go
to fight
competitors?

How can
competition
harm a
business?
Should
established
businesses
oppose
competition?
Are there nonviolent ways to
fight
competition?

Could one
work together
with
competitors?
Should all
competitors be
approached
the same?

Steps in Socratic seminar

3. Introduce the model
Purpose: think for themselves
Criteria: openness to ideas, connecting to ideas

4. Conduct the discussion

Encourage interactions between students
Use cluster questions to guide discussion
Always ask for reasons. Dont correct, rather ask
follow-up questions
Use Socratic questions to probe students positions
(even those you agree with)

For your reference

Clarification

What do you mean by? How does this relate to? What is an
example of?

Assumption

What are you assuming? Can you justify your assumption? What are
other possible assumptions? Is that always true?

Reason &
evidence

How do you know that? Can you give an example? Is that sufficient
reason to reach that conclusion? What are your reasons? Is there any
reason to doubt the evidence? What would change your mind?

Viewpoint

What are other viewpoints? How would other people respond to that?
What would someone who disagrees say?

Implication

How can we find out? If that happened, what else may happen? If this
is the case, what else is true? Is it likely that this will happen?

Question

Why are we examining this question? Is this question clear? To answer

this question, what should we find out first? How could we settle this
question?

Steps in Socratic seminar

3. Introduce the model
Purpose: think for themselves
Criteria: openness to ideas, connecting to ideas

4. Conduct the discussion

5. Review and summarise discussion
Look at how their thinking changed
Make some generalisations

CONCEPT ATTAINMENT

Principles
People learn by:
Categorising facts into concepts
Labelling and defining the world
Figuring out from many examples (from
observation to hypothesis to theory)

Concepts have:
Name and definition
Examples
Critical attributes

Steps in concept attainment

1. Select and define a concept
Place in a concept hierarchy (chunk up and down)
Working definition (to guide you, not to give to
students)
Definition draws on

Concept hierarchy

Superordinate

Functions

Marketing
manager

Coordinate
Subordinate

Design
product

Decide on
price

Develop
promotion

Financial
manager

General
manager

Steps in concept attainment

1. Select and define a concept
Place in a concept hierarchy
Working definition

2. Develop examples and nonexamples

Examples: contain all attributes
Nonexamples: missing some attributes, from same
superordinate, but coordinate

Concept hierarchy

Superordinate

Functions

Marketing
manager

Coordinate
Subordinate

Design
product

Decide on
price

Develop
promotion

Financial
manager

General
manager

Steps in concept attainment

3. Review the process with class
Define mystery concept by looking at what
examples have in common and nonexamples
dont have
Three columns: Examples, Nonexamples,
Guesses

Three columns
Examples

Not examples

Guess what it is

Steps in concept attainment

3. Review the process with class
4. Present the examples
Place one/two examples in first column
Place one/two nonexamples in second column

5. Generate hypotheses and continue cycle

Record guesses
Cross out when found out not to fit
Students explain why they keep guesses on the
board as new examples are given

Steps in concept attainment

6. Once guesses converge on one thing, develop
a concept label and definition
Students decide on label and on their own
definition

7. Provide test examples to solidify definition

Students provide their own examples and explain
why they fit the definition

8. Discuss with class how humans learn

concepts

CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

Principles
People learn by:
Relating concepts to each other
Looking for and making patterns

Steps in
1. Students list as many specific items as possible
associated with a subject
Examples: strategy, entrepreneur

2. They group items that are alike in separate

groups
3. Label the groups and give reasons for their
grouping

Steps in
4. Could some items be placed in a different
group? Could some whole groups be part of
another group?
Always ask for reasons
New items may be added any time

5. Regroup items
6. Make a general statement about the topic

Summary of concept development

Step

Teacher asks

Students respond

List specific items

List as many specific items associated

with?

Make a list. Items

must be specific.

Group alike items

Do any items belong together?

Find similarities.

Label groups

Why did you put these items together?

What would you call each group?

Identify common
characteristics.

Rethink groupings

Could some items belong to more than

one group? Could some groups belong
within another group?

Find new
relationships.

Regroup & relabel

Can we regroup? Why?

State new
relationships?

Generalise

What did we learn? Can you say

something in one sentence about all the
groups?

Summarise
knowledge.

PERSONAL ANALOGY

Principles
Metaphor and analogy = foundation of
learning new ideas
People learn by:
Linking ideas to their personal ideas
Being personally creative

Steps in learning by analogy

1. Provide information on new idea
2. Present the analogy with something familiar to
learners and explain it
3. Students discuss how the analogy is similar to the
original idea
4. Students discuss in what ways the analogy is
different from the original idea
5. Students re-examine the original idea. How did
their understanding change?
6. Students develop their own improved analogies.

Graphic organiser
New
concept

Familiar
concept

Similarities

Differences