CHAPTER (III)

PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

3-1: Pure substance:
It is a substance that has a fixed chemical composition. As water,
nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide for example.

Also, a mixture of various chemical elements or compounds are
considered as a pure substance as long as the mixture is homogeneous. As air
for example. But a mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance.

A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure
substance as long as the chemical composition of all phases is the same. As a
mixture of ice and liquid water, for example.
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Note that
A mixture of liquid air and gaseous air is not a pure substance, this is
due to different components in air condensing at different temperatures
at specified pressure.

A pure substance exist in different phases. At room temperature and
pressure, copper is a solid, mercury is a liquid, and nitrogen is a gas, for
example.

3-2:Phase Change Processes of Pure Substance:

Attention in this section is focused on the liquid and vapor phase and
their mixture. Water is used to demonstrate the basic principles involved,
and all the pure substances exhibit the same general behavior.

During the heating process of water to change its phase from liquid to
vapor at sea level i.e; at atmospheric pressure, we will recognize the
following states, as shown in (Figure 3-1):
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Fig.3-1
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1) The compressed liquid (or sub-cooled liquid):
It is the states of liquid where it is not about to vaporize.
(all liquid states up to just before state 2, as state 1).
2) The saturated liquid:
It is the state of liquid where it is about to vaporize.
(state 2 exactly).
3) The saturated vapor:
It is the state of vapor where it is about to condense.
(state 4 exactly).
4) The saturated liquid-vapor mixture:
It is the states where the liquid and vapor phases coexist in
equilibrium.
(states above state 2 and before state 4, as state 3).
5) Superheated vapor:
It is the state of vapor where it is not about to condense.
(states above state 4, as state 5).


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Attention:
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance
change phase is called saturated temperature Tsat .
likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure
substance change phase is called saturated t pressure Psat .
6) Latent heat of fusion:
It is the amount of energy absorbed during melting process, and it is
equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing.
7) Latent heat of vaporization:
It is the amount of energy absorbed during vaporization process, and
it is equivalent to the amount of energy released during condensation.

The variations of properties during phase change processes are best
study and understood with the help of property diagram.

Now, we will develop and discuss the T-v, P-v, and P-T diagrams for
pure substance.

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3.3: T-v Diagram:
The phase change process of water at 1 atm pressure was described
in detail in (Fig. 3-1). Now we repeated this process at different pressures
to develop the T-v diagram.




Fig.3-1
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Figure (3-2): T-v diagram of constant pressure phase change of a pure substance at
various pressures (numerical values are for water).
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Critical point:
It is the point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states
are identical.








The critical properties for
various substances are
given in table A-1.


T
Fig.3-3
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9















Figure 3-4: T-v diagram of a pure substance




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Saturated liquid line:
It is the line that represent all the saturated liquid states in (Fig.3-2).
Saturated vapor line:
It is the line that represent all the saturated vapor states in (Fig.3-2).
It is clear from (Fig.3-4) that Saturated liquid line and Saturated vapor line
meet at the critical point, forming a dome.
Compressed liquid region:
it is the region at the left of saturated liquid line where all the
compressed liquid states are located in single phase (liquid).
Superheated vapor region:
it is the region at the right of saturated vapor line where all the
superheated vapor states are located in single phase (vapor).
Saturated liquid-vapor mixture region (wet region):
It is the region that located under the dome, where all the states
that involve both phases in equilibrium (liquid and vapor).
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3.4: P-v Diagram:
The general shape of the of the P-v diagram of pure substance is very
much like the T-v diagram, but the T = constant lines on this diagram have
a downward trend, as shown in Figure 3-5.
Fig.3-5
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Extending the diagrams to include the solid phase:
Diagrams that already developed can easily be extended to include
the solid phase, solid-liquid and the solid-vapor saturation regions.

The basic principles discussed with the liquid-vapor phase-change
process apply equally to the solid-liquid and solid-vapor phase-change
processes.

Most substance contract during a solidification process. Others, like
water, expand as they freeze. The P-v diagrams for both groups of
substances are given in Figures 3-6 and 3-7. These two diagrams differ
only in the solid-liquid saturation region.

The T-v diagrams look very much like the P-v diagrams.
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Fig.3-6 Fig.3-7
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Under some conditions all three phases of a pure substance coexist
in equilibrium.
On P-v or T-v diagrams, these triple-phase states form a line called
the triple line.
The states on the triple line of a substance have the same pressure
and temperature but different specific volumes.
The triple line appears as a point on the P-T diagrams, which is called
the triple point.



The triple point temperatures and pressures
of various substances are given in table 3-3.
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Sublimation:
It is the evaporation of the substance
directly without melting first.

Sublimation occurs at pressures bellow
the triple point value, where the pure
substance cannot exist in the liquid
phase at those pressure, as shown in
Fig. 3-8.

Solid Co2 (dry ice) is a substance that
has a triple point above atmospheric
pressure.
Fig.3-8
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3.5: P-T Diagram:
P-T diagram is often called the
phase diagram because all the
three phases are separated from
each other by three lines.
These three lines meet at the
triple point.
The vaporization line ends at the
critical point because no distinction
can be made between liquid and
vapor phases above the critical
point.
Substance that contract and expand
on freezing differ only in the milting
line on the P-T diagram.
Fig.3-9
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3.6: The P-v-T surface:
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3.7: Property Tables:

The relationships among thermodynamics properties are too complex to be
expressed by simple equations. So, properties are frequently presented in the
form of tables.
Some thermodynamics properties can be measured easily, but others cannot,
and are calculated by using the relations between them and measurable
properties.

Steam tables will be used to demonstrate the use of thermodynamics
property tables. Property tables of other substances are used in the same
manner.

Before we get into the discussion of property tables, we define a new
property called enthalpy (h).

ENTHALPY (H):

Enthalpy is a combination property defined as:

h = u + Pv (kJ/kg) (3-1)
Or,
H = U + PV (kJ) (3-2)
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A. Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States:
The properties of saturated liquid and saturated vapor are listed in Tables A-4
and A-5. Both tables give the same information. The only difference is that in Table
A-4 properties are listed under temperature and in Table A-5 under pressure. So it
is convenient to use Table A-4 when temperature is given and Table A-5 when
pressure is given.
The subscript f is used to denote properties of saturated liquid, and the
subscript g is used to denote properties of saturated vapor. Also the subscript fg is
used to denote the difference between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid
values of the same property.

For example,
= specific volume of saturated liquid.

= specific volume of saturated vapor.

= difference between and (that is = - ).

Enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat of vaporization):
It represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of saturated
liquid at a given temperature or pressure.
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f
v
g
v
fg
v
g
v
f
v
fg
v
g
v
f
v
fg
h
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25

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350
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B. Saturated LiquidVapor Mixture:
During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part saturated
liquid and part saturated vapor.
The proportions of saturated liquid and saturated vapor phases in
the mixture can be determined by defining a new property called the
quality x.

Quality x:
It is the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture.

(3-3)

where
(3-4)
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Note that:
Quality was defined for saturated mixtures only. It
has no meaning in the compressed liquid or sup-
erheated vapor regions.

Quality`s value is between 0 and 1, i.e., the quality
of a system that consisting of saturated liquid is
0 (or 0%), and the quality of a system that consis-
ting of saturated vapor is 1 (or 100%).

In saturated mixtures, quality can serve as one of the two independent
intensive properties needed to describe a state.

Properties of the saturated liquid (or saturated vapor) are the same
whether it exists alone or in a mixture with saturated vapor (or saturated
liquid). During the vaporization process, only the amount of saturated
liquid (or saturated vapor) changes, not its properties.
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A saturated mixture can be treated as a combination
of two subsystems; the saturated liquid and the
saturated vapor. Here is how it is done.

Consider a tank that contains a saturated liquid-vapor
mixture. The volume occupied by the saturated liquid
is Vf ,and the volume occupied by the saturated vapor
is Vg . The total volume V is the sum of the two:




(3-4)
(3-5)
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Based on Eq. 3-5,
The analysis and results obtained in Eq. 3-4
can be repeated for internal energy and
enthalpy with the following results:
(3-7)
(3-6)
Now, all results can be summarized in a
single Eq. as:
Where y is v, u, or h. And also:
Finally , all the saturated-mixture states are located under the saturation curve, and
all we need to analyze saturated mixtures, are saturated liquid and saturated vapor
data (Table A-4 and A-5 in the case of water).
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C. Saturated Solid-Vapor Mixtures:

Property tables are also available for saturated solid-vapor mixtures.
Properties of saturated ice-water vapor mixtures are listed in Table A-8.
Saturated solid-vapor mixtures can be handled just as saturated liquid-vapor
mixtures.

D. Superheated Vapor:

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Interpolation:










Property (B) Property (A)
y1 x1
y x
y2 x2
C
y y
x x
y y
x x

1 2
1 2
1
1
) (
1 1
y y C x x
E. Compressed Liquid:
Compressed liquid table are not as commonly available, see Table A-7.
One reason for the lake of compressed liquid data is the relative
independence of compressed liquid properties from pressure.
In the absence of compressed liquid data, a general approximation is to
treat a compressed liquid as a saturated liquid at the given temperature.
i.e.;
@ T
where y is v, u, or h.




f
y y
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3.8: The Ideal-Gas Equation of State:
Any equation that related the pressure, temperature, and specific
volume of a substance is called an equation of state.
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substance in the gas
phase is the ideal-gas equation of state which predicts the P-v-T behavior.
It was observed experimentally that the pressure of gases is inversely
proportional to their volume and at low pressures the volume of gas is
proportional to its temperature. So:

Or

Where:
P is the absolute pressure, T is the absolute temperature, v is the
specific volume, and R is the constant of proportionality which is called
gas constant.
The above equation is called the ideal-gas equation of state, and
a gas that obeys this relation is called an ideal gas.

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The gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from:


Where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass(also called
molecular weight)of the gas.
The molar mass M can be defined as the mass of one mole of the
substance in grams, or the mass of one kmol of the substance in
kilograms.
The constant Ru is the same for all substances, and its value is:

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The mass of a system is equal to the product of its molar mass M and the
mole number N:

m = MN (kg)
The values of R and M for several substances are given in Table A-1 .

The ideal-gas equation of state can be written in several different
forms:







Where v is the molar specific volume, i.e.; volume per unit mole (in m/kmol).
A bar above a property denotes values on a unit-mole basis.
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For a fixed mass system, the properties of an ideal gas at two
different states can be written as:





Note that:
An ideal gas is an imaginary substance that obeys the relation Pv=RT .
Real gases at low densities (at low pressures and high temperatures) give
closely approximates the P-v-T behavior.
Many familiar gases such air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon,
neon, krypton, and even heavier gases such as carbon dioxide can be
treated as an ideal gases with negligible error (often less than 1%).
Dense gases such as water vapor in steam power plants and refrigerant
vapor in refrigerators, should not be treated as ideal gases. The property
tables should be used for these substances.
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.