Mendel and the Principles of

Heredity
Gregor Johan Mendel,
an Austrian monk,
gave the first
scientific
interpretation of the
heredity mechanism
in 1865 after 8 years
of experimental work
with garden peas ю
 When Mendel began his studies of inheritance
using Pisum sativum, the garden pea, there
was no knowledge of chromosomes nor of the
role and mechanisms of meiosis. Nevertheless,
he was able to determine that distinct units of
inheritance exist and to predict their behavior
during the formation of gametes.
 In 1866 Gregor Mendel published the results
of his experiments, but unfortunately , no
attention was paid from scientists anywhere.
 Subsequent investigators, with access to
cytological data, were able to relate their
observations of chromosome behavior during
meiosis to Mendel’s principles of
inheritance. Once this correlation was made,
Mendel’s postulates were accepted as the
basis for the study of transmission genetics,
or Mendelian Genetics
 Mendel’s achievements were rediscovered in 1900 by three
scientists who had obtained similar results and recognized his
precedence
 Hugo de Vries (1848-1935)
in Holland

 Carl Correns (1864-1933)

in Germany

 Eric von Tschermack(1855-1927)

in Austria
 Blending Concept of Inheritance,
Before Mendel
 Many scientists before Mendel had tried to discover
how biological characteristics are inherited. They had
crossed plants or animals and had looked at the
overall similarities between the offspring and their
parents.
 The results were confusing: the offspring resembled
one parent in some traits and the other parent in other
traits, and apparently neither one in still other traits.
 Blending Concept of Inheritance, . This theory
stated that offspring would possess traits intermediate
between those of different parents.
 Mendel succeeded where earlier
investigators had failed owing to
his brilliant insight and
methodology
 MENDEL’S METHOD
1. Mendel did a statistical study (he had a mathematical
background).
 2. He prepared his experiments carefully and conducted

preliminary studies.
 3. Mendel paid attention to a single trait at a time

 4. He chose the garden pea, Pisum sativum, because peas

were easy to cultivate, had a short generation time, and

could be cross-pollinated.
 5. From many varieties, Mendel chose 22 true-breading

varieties for his experiments.

 6. True-breeding varieties had all offspring like the parents

and like each other.


 аа аа
а а
аа

True breeding plan

аа
 АА АА
А А
genotype АА
phenotype
True breeding
True breeding
plants
АА
 Mendel studied Seven Traits or
Characteristics. Each characteristic
occurred in Two Contrasting Traits:
е

л Mendel studied Хthe inheritance of seed
о shape first.
 Mendel crossed pure-breeding (also
к
о referred to as true-breeding) smooth-
п seeded plants with a variety that had
always produced wrinkled seeds (60
1 fertilizations on 15 plants).
 All resulting seeds were smooth.
F
Mendel found that all seven characters he had
selected for study behaved in this way, in each
case only one of two contrasting traits appeared
in the F1 hybrids.
 dominant characteristic recessive characteristic

Р. Homozygous organisms
Х
АА аа

А а
genotype Аа

F1 phenotype
Аа
Р. ♀ YY Х yy ♂
gametes Y y

F1 generation Yy
 Mendel called such traits( yellow
seeds, axial flowers, etc.) dominant
And their alternatives ( wrinkled seeds, green peas,
terminal flowers), he called recessive
 When contrasting traits are present in the
parents they do not blend in the offspring,
but one is dominant and usually appears
fully developed, while the other is recessive
and temporarily drops out of sight. .
The following year, Mendel planted these seeds
and allowed them to self-fertilize. He recovered
7324 seeds: 5474 smooth and 1850 wrinkled.
The ratio was very close to 3:ait1
A similar ratio appeared in all other crosses, in
every case the dominant trait was about three
times as common in the F2 as the recessive trait
 F
1
п
о 
к
о
Х л
е
 Р. ♀ Yy Х Yy ♂
gametes Y y Y y
F2 YY Yy Yy yy
generation
 F2
Аа Аа

А а А а

genotype 1АА 1Аа 1Аа 1аа

phenotype
 From these types of experiments and observations,
Mendel concluded that the heritable factor for yellow
peas was not lost in the F1 plants, but was masked by
the presence of the green-peas factor.
We now call these heritable factors genes.
 Mendel formulated his hypothesis of inheritance
which can be divided into four parts:
There are alternative forms for genes, the units that
determine inheritable characteristics:
The gene for seed shape existed in two alternative
forms, one for smooth and one for wrinkled.
Alternative forms of a gene are now called alleles.
For each inherited characteristic, an organism has two
alleles, one inherited from each parent.
Mendel's experiment included one parental variety
which had a pair of alleles for smooth seed shape
and one which had a pair of alleles for wrinkled
seed shape .
 The F1 hybrids inherited from the parental plants
one allele for smooth seed shape and one allele
for wrinkled seed shape.
 A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited
characteristic, because allele pairs separate (segregate) from
each other during the production of gametes. At fertilization,
the sperm and egg unite with both contributing their alleles.
This restores the gene to the paired condition.
In Mendel's experiment, each gamete of a parental plant
carried one allele for seed shape, specifying either
smooth or wrinkled.
Cross-pollination to produce the F1 resulted in the
combination found in this generation.
 Mendel's hypothesis explains the 3:1 ratio of progeny plant
types he observed in the F2 generation.
It predicts that the F1 hybrids (Ss) will produce two classes of
gametes when the pairs separate during gamete formation.
Half will receive a smooth seed (S) allele and the other half
the wrinkled seed allele (s).
During self-pollination, these two classes of alleles unite in a
random manner.
Eggs containing smooth seed alleles have equal chances of
being fertilized by sperm carrying wrinkled -seed alleles or
sperm carrying yellow- seed alleles.
Since the same is true for eggs containing green-seed alleles,
there are four equally likely combinations of sperm and eggs.
The combinations resulting from a genetic cross may be
predicted by using a device called a Punnett Square.
 F
1
п
о 
к
о
Х л
е
е
л Х
о
к

о
п Mendel's Principle of Segregation states
that an individual inherits a unit of
1
information (allele) about a trait from
each parent. During gamete formation,
F the alleles segregate from each other.
Mendel realized the need to conduct his experiments
on more complex situations. He performed
experiments tracking two seed traits: shape and
color. A cross concerning two traits is known as a
dihybrid cross.
е

л Х true-breeding plants that
Mendel started with
о had smooth, yellow seeds and crossed them
к with true-breeding plants having green,
wrinkled seeds. All plants in the F1 had smooth
yellow seeds.
о
п

 1

F
е

л Х
. The F2 plants self-fertilized, and produced
о four phenotypes:

к 315 smooth yellow

о 108 smooth green

п 101 wrinkled yellow
 32 wrinkled green
1

F

 Mendel analyzed each trait for separate inheritance
as if the other trait were not present.The 3:1 ratio
was seen separately and was in accordance with the
Principle of Segregation. The segregation of S and s
alleles must have happened independently of the
segregation of Y and y alleles.
 The chance of any gamete having a Y is 1/2; the chance of
any one gamete having a S is 1/2.The chance of a gamete
having both Y and S is the product of their individual
chances (or 1/2 X 1/2 = 1/4). The chance of two gametes
forming any given genotype is 1/4 X 1/4 (remember, the
product of their individual chances). Thus, the Punnett
Square has 16 boxes. Since there are more possible
combinations to produce a smooth yellow phenotype
(SSYY, SsYy, SsYY, and SSYy), that phenotype is more
common in the F2.
When two individuals differ from each other in
two or more pairs of factors, the inheritance of
one pair is quite independent of the inheritance
of others
 Аа аа

А а а

генотип Аа аа

фенотип
Аа аа
Определить фенотипы F1

ТТ tt

СС сс
 Задача
У арбуза зеленая окраска плодов
доминирует над полосатой. Определите
окраску плодов арбузов, полученных от
скрещивания растений, имеющих
генотипы аа и Аа.

Аа аа
 Решение
Дано: Р ♀ ss х ♂ Ss
S — зеленая окраска полосатый зеленый
s — полосатая Г.(G) s S s
Фенотип F1 -? F1 Ss ss

По генотипу 1:1
По фенотипу 1:1
Ответ: в F1 1/2 растений будет с зеленой
окраской плодов и 1/2 – полосатых
А А а
А
а
В а в
В В
в
в

В
в
Дигибридным называется
скрещивание двух
организмов,
отличающихся друг от
друга по двум парам
альтернативных
(взаимоисключающих)
признаков.
Р.
♀ ААВВ Х ♂ аавв

Красный Желтый
круглый овальный
 Дано: Схема скрещивания
А-красные томаты
а- желтые томаты Р ♀ ААВВ х ♂ аавв
В –округлые
в - овальные

G.
АВ ав

Фенотип F1- ? F1 Красный

круглый
Генотип F1- ?

Фенотип F2- ? Генотип

АаВв
Генотип F2- ?
G. АВ Ав аВ ав

G.= 2n
n- число гетерозигот в генотипе
F1 ♀ Х ♂
АаВв АаВв

Красный Красный
круглый круглый
 ♀ АаВв х ♂ АаВв
F1

G. АВ Ав аВ ав АВ Ав аВ ав
 Решетка Пеннета

Гаметы
♀
♂ АВ Ав аВ ав

ААВВ ААВв АаВВ АаВв

АВ

ААВв ААвв АаВв Аавв

Ав

АаВВ АаВв ааВВ ааВв

аВ

АаВв Аавв аавв

ааВв
ав
 Расщепление по фенотипу
9 12 4

3 по цвету

12
3
4 1
по форме
 По генотипу
1 ААВВ: 2ААВв: 1 Аавв:
2 АаВВ:4 АаВв:2Аавв:1ааВВ:
2ааВв:1аавв
 Задача.
У гороха желтая окраска семян
доминирует над зеленой, а гладкая
форма плодов - над морщинистой.
Определите фенотип и генотип семян
в потомстве от скрещивания двойной
рецессивной гомозиготы с двойной
гетерозиготой. Каковы признаки
родительских особей.
 Запись решения
Дано: ♀ kknn ♂ KkNn
Р х
K-желтые
зеленые морщ. желтые, гладкие
k зеленые
N -гладкие
n - морщинистые Г kn KN Kn kn kN
Р- ♀- kknn
♂- KkNn

F1 KkNn Kknn kknn kkNn

жел., гл. жел., морщ. зел. морщ. зел. гл.
Фенотип F1- ?
Генотип F1- ? Генотип
1:1:1:1
Фенотип
1:1:1:1
Ответ: генотип семян KkNn, Kknn, kknn, kkNn;
фенотип семян: желтые гладкие, желтые морщинистые,
зеленые морщинистые, зеленые гладкие
 Задача.
У тыквы желтая окраска плодов А
доминирует над белой а, а
дисковидная форма плодов В - над
сферической. Скрещиваются
растения, имеющие генотипы ААВв и
Аавв. Определите вероятность
появления растения с белыми
сферическими плодами.
 Запись решения
Дано: ♀ ААВв ♂ Аавв
Р х
А-желтая
желтые диск. желтые, сферич.
а -белая
В –дисковид.
n – сферич. Г АВ Ав Ав ав
Р- ♀- ААВв
♂- Аавв
F1
ААВв АаВв ААвв Аавв
жел., жел., жел. жел.
Вероятность диск. диск. сфер. сфер.
белых сферич.
в F1.- ?
Генотип
1:1:1:1
Фенотип
1:1
Ответ: вероятность появления растений с белыми
сферическими плодами равна нулю.