Chapter 2

Solar Thermal energy

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Solar collectors
A solar collector absorbs the incident solar radiation
and convert it to useful heat which is used for heating a
collector fluid such as water, oil or air.
The surface of a solar collector is designed for high
absorption and low emission.
It is classified into two types: 1) Flat plate collectors 2)
Concentrating (focusing) collectors.

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Flat Plate Collectors
A flat plate solar collector as shown in fig.1 consists of
a transparent cover, an absorber plate, a series of
tubes, and a housing with thermal insulation.
The absorber plate with several parallel tubes is
fabricated from copper tube and sheet by soft
soldering.
The plate is blackened in order to absorb maximum
amount of sun light.
It is also kept in a box to insulate it from sides and
bottom so as to prevent heat losses and thereby attain
high temperatures.
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Flat Plate Collectors Contt
The complete structure is placed at a proper inclination
to the sun so as to absorb solar radiations.
The heat absorbed by plate is removed by circulating
water, or some other fluid or air in contact with it or
through the tubes.
The flat plate collector gives a temperature of only
about 60 degree above ambient with an efficiency of
30-40%.
They are mainly used for water heating, space heating,
space cooling etc.
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Flat Plate Collectors Contt
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Fig.1 Schematic Diagram of a Flat Plate Solar Collector
Materials For Flat Plate Collectors
The material for absorber plate should have high thermal
conductivity, adequate tensile strength and good corrosion
resistance.
The most common material used for absorber plate is copper
because of its high conductivity and resistance to corrosion.
Other materials for absorber plate are Aluminium, Iron, Brass,
Silver, Tin and Zinc.
The materials for insulation which should have low thermal
conductivity and stability at high temperature are crown white
wool, glass wool, calcium silicate, cellular foam etc.
Tempered glass is commonly used material for cover plate.
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Solar Concentrating Collectors


For applications such as air conditioning, central
power generation, and numerous industrial heat
requirements, flat plate collectors generally cannot
provide carrier fluids at temperatures sufficiently
elevated to be effective.
Alternatively, more complex and expensive
concentrating collectors can be used.
These are devices that optically reflect and focus
incident solar energy onto a small receiving area.

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Concentrating Collectors Contt
As a result of this concentration, the intensity of the
solar energy is magnified, and the temperatures that
can be achieved at the receiver (called the "target")
can approach several hundred or even several
thousand degrees Celsius.
The concentrators must move to track the sun if they
are to perform effectively
Concentrating, or focusing, collectors intercept direct
radiation over a large area and focus it onto a small
absorber area.
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Concentrating Collectors Contt
These collectors can provide high temperatures more
efficiently than flat-plate collectors, since the
absorption surface area is much smaller.
However, diffused sky radiation cannot be focused
onto the absorber.
Most concentrating collectors require mechanical
equipment that constantly orients the collectors toward
the sun and keeps the absorber at the point of focus.
Therefore; there are many types of concentrating
collectors
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Types of Concentrating Collectors
1. Parabolic trough system
2. Parabolic dish
3. Power tower
4. Stationary concentrating collectors


There are four basic types of concentrating collectors:
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1. Parabolic Trough System
Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the
letter u. The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a
receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of
the trough.
Fig.3 Parabolic trough system
Fig. 2 Crossection of parabolic trough
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Parabolic troughs often use single-axis or dual-axis
tracking.
Fig. 4. One Axis Tracking Parabolic
Trough with Axis Oriented E-W
Fig. 5. Two Axis Tracking Concentrator
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Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400 C and
produce steam for generating electricity. Multi-megawatt
power plants have been built using parabolic troughs
combined with gas turbines (California).
Fig. 6 Parabolic trough combined with gas turbines
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2. Parabolic Dish Systems
A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a
large satellite dish, but has mirror-like reflectors and an
absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker
Fig. 7. Crossection of parabolic dish 14
A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the
sun and concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver
located at the focal point in front of the dish. Parabolic
dish systems can reach 1000 C at the receiver.
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2. Parabolic Dish Systems Contt
3. Power Tower System
A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct
solar energy to a large absorber located on a tower. To date
the only application for the heliostat collector is power
generation in a system called the power tower (solar tower).
Fig. 9 Heliostats
Fig. 8 Power tower system
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A heliostat (from helios, the Greek word for sun, and stat,
as in stationary) is a device incorporating a mirror which
moves so as to keep reflecting sunlight toward a
predetermined target or receiver, despite the sun's apparent
motions in the sky.
The target is stationary relative to the heliostat, so the light
is reflected in a fixed direction.
Most modern heliostats are controlled by computers. The
computer is given the heliostat's position on the earth
(latitude and longitude) and the time and date, and uses
them to calculate the direction of the sun as seen from the
mirror. 17
3. Power Tower System Contt
A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the
sun's path across the sky.
The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on top of a
high tower.
A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so the reflected rays
of the sun are always aimed at the receiver, where
temperatures well above 1000C can be reached.
High-pressure steam is generated to produce electricity.
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3. Power Tower System Contt
Fig. 10 Power tower system with heliostats 19
3. Power Tower System Contt
Fig. 11 Power tower system with heliostats 20
3. Power Tower System Contt
4. Stationary Concentrating Solar Collectors
Stationary concentrating collectors use compound
parabolic reflectors and flat reflectors for directing
solar energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture
through a wide acceptance angle.
The wide acceptance angle for these reflectors
eliminates the need for a sun tracker.

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Working principles of concentrating collectors
Unlike solar (photovoltaic) cells, which use light to produce
electricity, concentrating solar power systems generate
electricity with heat.
Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors and lenses to
concentrate and focus sunlight onto a thermal receiver,
similar to a boiler tube.
The receiver absorbs and converts sunlight into heat. The
heat is then transported to a steam generator or engine
where it is converted into electricity.
A concentrating solar power system that produces 350 MW
of electricity displaces the energy equivalent of 2.3 million
barrels of oil .

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Application of Flat Plate Collectors
1. Water heating
2. Space heating
3. Power generation
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1. Water Heating
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Fig.12 Water heating system
2. Space Heating
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Fig.13 Space heating system
3. Power Generation
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Fig.14 Low temperature power generation
Application of Concentrating Collectors
1. Solar plants for power generation
2. Industrial process heat supply
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Solar Thermal Power Plants
There are two types of solar thermal power plants:
1. Solar distributed collector power plants
2. Solar central receiver power plants
In the first type, collectors may be of two types: 1)
Parabolic trough units with line focus, and 2)
Paraboloidal dishes with center focus.
While in second type, there are again two type: 1)
Solar furnace systems, and 2) Solar farm systems.
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1. Solar distributed collector power plants
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Fig. 15 Solar power plant
1. Solar distributed collector power plants
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Fig. 16 Schematic of a concentrated solar thermal trough
power plant with thermal storage
2. Solar central receiver power plants
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Fig.17 Solar Furnace (Tower Concept)
2. Solar central receiver power plants contt
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Fig. 18 Solar Furnace (Tower Concept)
Limitations of Solar Thermal Energy
A vast amount of solar energy is though freely available from
sun but it has following limitations:
1. Low energy density 0.1 to 1 kW/m
2
.
2. Large area is required to collect solar thermal energy.
3. Direction of rays changes continuously with time.
4. Solar energy is not available during night and during
clouds.
5. Energy storage is essential.
6. High cost.

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Limitations of Solar Thermal Energy contt
7. It requires hybrid plant with storage facility for supplying
energy during night.
8. Solar central power plants in MW range are not
economical.

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Thermal Energy Storage
Thermal energy storage is essential for both domestic water
and space heating applications.
Thermal energy can be stored in well insulated fluids or
solids
It can be stored in the following two ways:
1. Sensible heat storage
2. Latent heat storage

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