Electro-optics:

+ Certain materials change their optical properties when

subjected to an electric field (caused by forces that
distort the positions, orientations, or shapes of the
molecules.
Electro-optic effect: apply an electric field =>
refractive index change; two forms
(a) An E: linear electro-optic effect or Pockels
effect
(b) An E
2
: quadratic electro-optic effect or Kerr
effect
An is typically very small; the important factor is the
phase shift which An and d. The necessary range is
0 < And < 2t.
+ Applications of the electro-optical effects:
A lens with variable refractive index => a lens of
controllable focal length;
A prism with beam bending ability => optical
scanning device.
Light transmitted through a transparent plate of
controllable refractive index => controllable phase
shift => optical phase modulator.
An anisotropic crystal with variable refractive index
=> variable phase retarder => control the polarization
properties of light
The variable phase retarder placed between two
polarizer => optical intensity modulator or optical
switch.
+ Principles of electro-optics:
In general, the refractive index of an
electro-optic medium is a function
n(E) of the applied electric field E.
If the function varies slightly with E
=> Taylors expansion
n(E)
E 0 0
n n
Pockels
medium
Kerr
medium
+ + + =
2
2 2
1
1
) ( E a E a n E n
Define two new coefficients: r and s (electro-optic
coefficient)
; / ; / ; ) 0 ( where
0
2 2
2
0
1
=
=
= = =
E
E
dE n d a dE dn a n n
3
2
3
1
/ ; / 2 n a n a = = s r
2 3
2
1
3
2
1
) ( E n E n n E n ~ s r
Neglect higher order
term which is small
Expression in terms of electric impermeability q
3 2
0
/ 2 / / 1 / n dn d n = = = q c c q
) )( / 2 ( ) / (
2 3
2
1
3
2
1
3
E n E n n n dn d = A = A s r q q
2 3
2
1
3
2
1
) 0 ( ) ( E n E n n E n n = = A s r
Pockels Effect:
In many materials the s term is negligible
2
) ( E E E + + = s r q q
E E + ~ r q q ) ( r: Pockels coefficient
Typical value of r 10
-12
-10
-10
m/V (1-100 pm/V);
For E=10
6
V/m => rn
3
E/2 ~10
-6
-10
-4
(very small).
Most common crystals used as Pockels cells:
NH
4
H
2
PO
4
(ADP), KH
2
PO
4
(KDP), LiNbO
3
,
LiTaO
3
.
Kerr Effect:
If the materials is centrosymmetric, as is the case for
gases, liquid, and certain crystals, n(E) must be an
even function => r = 0
2
) ( E E + = s q q
2 3
2
1
) ( E n n E n ~ s
E n n E n
3
2
1
) ( ~ r
s: Kerr coefficient
Typical value of s 10
-18
-10
-14
m
2
/V
2
in crystals;
10
-22
-10
-19
m
2
/V
2
in liquids; for E=10
6
V/m =>
sn
3
E/2 ~10
-6
-10
-2
in crystals; ~10
-10
-10
-7
in liquids;
Electro-Optic Modulators and Switches:
Consider a beam traverses a Pockels cell of length L;
an electric field E is applied to the cell => phase shift
0 0
/ ) ( 2 ) ( t L E n L k E n = ~
0
3
0 0
3
0
/ / / 2 t t t EL n EL n nL r r = ~
t
t V V d V E / /
0
= =
3
0
n L
d
V
r

t
=

0
0
t
V
t
V
t
: half-wave voltage; depends on
materials (n and r), wavelength, and
geometry (d/L).
Phase
modulation
V
V
d
L
V
Longitudinal Transverse Traveling wave Transverse
V
t
: ~ several kV for longitudinal; hundreds of V for
transverse modulators
The operation speed of the device is limited by
electrical capacitive effects and the transit time of the
light through the materials (T). If electric field varies
quickly during the time period of T => lights are not
traveling in constant field => transit-time-limited
modulation bandwidth ~ 1/T. To eliminate this
problem so that bandwidth could be increased is
using the electrodes as transmission lines for
electrical wave to match the velocity of the optical
wave. => Push operational speed from several
hundred MHz to GHz)
EO modulators can also be constructed as
integrated-optical (IO) devices. Typically higher
V
0
V 0
d << L
LiNbO
3
V
t
: ~ several V
Dynamic Wave Retarders:
An anisotropic medium has two linearly polarized
normal modes that propagate with different velocities
, say c
0
/n
1
and c
0
/n
2
. If the medium exhibits the
Pockels effect, apply an electric field E, two
refractive index are modified:
speed and lower voltage to operate than bulk
devices.
E n n E n E n n E n
3
2 2 2
1
2 2
3
1 1 2
1
1 1
) ( ; ) ( ~ ~ r r
After propagation a distance L, the two modes
undergo a phase retardation (relative to each other)
given by
L E n E n k )] ( ) ( [
2 1 0
= I
The medium serves as an electrically
controllable dynamic wave retarded.
) ( ) (
3
2 2
3
1 1 0 2
1
2 1 0
EL n n k L n n k = r r
t
t V V d V E / /
0
I = I =
3
1 1
3
1 1
0
n n L
d
V
r r
=

t
where
I
0
0
t
V
t
Phase
retardation
Intensity Modulators: Use of a phase
modulator in an interferometer;
0
V
A
B
C
V
t
T(V)
E.g. the Mach-Zehnder interferometer
50%
50%
2
2
2
1
2
1
0
cos cos

i i i
I I I I = + =
(=
1
-
2
): the phase difference of the two branches
T: transmittance (=I
0
/I
i
)
1
0.5
0

2

Can be operated as a linear intensity modulator by
adjusting the optical path difference so that
0
=t/2
=> operating in the nearly linear region around T =
0.5. Can be operated as an optical switch by T(0) = 1
and T(V
t
) = 0.
Mach-Zehnder intensity may also be constructed in
the form of an integrated-optical device.

1
: modulated by
t
t V V /
0
1 1
=
t t
t t V V V V / /
0 2
0
1 2 1
= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
t
V
V
V
2 2
cos ) (
0
2
T
V
0
Commercial available integrated-optical
Modulator generally operate at speeds of
a few GHz, but speed of 25 GHz have
been achieved!
Intensity Modulators: Use of a Retadrer between
crossed Polarizers;
0
V
A
B
C
V
t
T(V)
1
0.5
0
t
t
) 2 / ( sin ) (
2
I = V T
t
t V V /
0
I = I
|
|
.
|

\
|

I
=
t
t
V
V
V
2 2
sin ) (
0
2
T
I: retardation
Linear modulator if T(V) = 0.5
and V << V
t
; let I
0
=t/2
t t
t t t
V
V
V
V
V
2 2
1
2 4
sin ) (
2
~
|
|
.
|

\
|
= T
I
0
could be adjusted either optically (by an
additional phase retarder or a compensator) or
electrically (by adding a constant bias to V).
Scanners:
An optical beam can be deflected dynamically by
using a prism with an electrically controlled
refractive index.
u
+V
-V
L
d
D
u
An electro-optic prism
An electro-optic
double prism
u

u
i
o ) 1 ( ~ n
o
For small o
d V n E n n /
3
2
1
3
2
1
r r o o o = = A = A

Changing V => changing Au => scanning!
Several prisms can be cascaded by alternating the
direction of the electric field.
-An important parameter: resolution! An optical
beam of width D and wavelength
0
, has an angular
divergence ou ~
0
/D. (ref. Eq. 3.2-15 of textbook)
o
To minimize the divergence angle, the beam should
be as wide as possible (cover the entire prism).
For a given maximum voltage V corresponding to
a scanned angle Au, the number of independent
spots is given by
) / /( ) / ( /
0
3
2
1
D d V n N o o r = A ~
) / )( / ( ; /
3
0
n L d V D L r o
t
= ~
t
V V N 2 / ~
V
t
=> to make N point scan => require 2NV
t

voltage very high => not a popular method!
The process of double refraction can be used to shift
an incident beam by changing its polarization
or
Position switch
Birefringent crystal
Directional Couplers:
Control the coupling between two parallel
waveguides in an integrated-optical device.
Coupling of light between two parallel single-mode
planar waveguides
P
1
(0)
P
1
(0)
P
1
(z)
P
2
(z)
P
2
(L
0
)
L
0

(
(

|
.
|

\
|
A
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2 / 1
2
0
2
2
2
0
0
2
2
1
0 2
1
2
1
c sin
2 ) (
sin
2 ) 0 ( P
) ( P
t
| t

t L
L
L L
T
T : power transfer ratio
0 2 1
/ 2 t | | | n A = = A
A| = 0 => transfer distance L
0
A| can be controlled by an applied voltage
For a waveguide of length L
0
and A| = 0, T is a
function of the phase mismatch
T
1
0 3
1/2
t
A|L
0
T has a maximum at A|L
0
= 0; at A|L
0
= 3
1/2
t, the
optical power is not transferred to waveguide 2.
Electrical controlled is A| achieved by using the
electro-optical effect => phase shift A|L
0
:
E L n L E n nL L
0
3
0 0 0
3
2
1
0 0 0
) / ( / ) ( 2 / 2 r r t t t | = = A = A
V d L n L ) / ( ) / ( 2
0
3
0 0
r t | = A
d
V
G
L
0
E = V/d for one waveguide and
-V/d for another waveguide =>
The necessary switching voltage (V
0
)
is A|L
0
= 3
1/2
t,
t t | 3 ) / ( ) / ( 2
0 0
3
0 0
= = A V d L n L r
- sign is not important!
Only the relative shift
counts
r r r
3
0
3
0
3
0
0
0
3
2 2 /
3
2
3
n
d
n
d
n L
d
V

t

t
C
C
= = =
The coupling length L
0
is inversely proportional to
the coupling coefficient C, and its switching voltage
(V
0
) is directly proportional to C. The key parameter
is therefore C, which is governed by the geometry
and the refractive indices.
E.g. Diffusion Ti into LiNbO
3
substrate: V
0
~ 10V;
operation speed can exceed 10GHz.
0 0
0
0
/ 3 | |
3
| |
V V L
V
V L
t |
t
|
= A =
A

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 / 1
2
0
2
2
3 1
2
1
c sin
2 V
V t
T
Coupling
efficiency
Spatial light modulators:
A device that modulates the intensity of the light at
different positions by prescribed factors.
incident
light
modulated
light
Transmittance
T(x, y)
y
x
+
+
+
-
-
-
A planar optical element of
controllable intensity transmittance
T(x, y); the transmitted light
intensity I
0
(x, y) is related to the
incident light intensity I
i
(x, y)
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
0
y x y x I y x I
i
T =
T(x, y) is like a image stored in
the medium and the incident beam
is like a read beam!
If T(x, y) is controllable, such as an
array of E-O materials on crossed
electrodes! (need addressing!)
Optically addressed electro-optic spatial light
modulators:
One method to addressing the E-O spatial light
modulator is based on the use of a thin layer of
photoconductive materials to create the electric field
required to operate the modulator.
The conductivity of the photoconductive materials
the intensity of light it exposed
Transparent
electrodes
Mirror
EO
Photoconductive
materials
Write
beam
Incident
beam
Modulated
beam
- Two electrodes to charge up
the photoconductivity
materials => the write beam
I
W
(x, y) illuminate on PCM
=> local conductance G(x, y)
I
W
(x, y) => higher charge
leakage at regions exposed to
stronger light intensity => local voltage 1/G(x, y)
i.e. E(x, y)1/G(x, y)1/I
W
(x, y)!
Pockels Readout Optical Modulator (PROM):
The device uses a crystal of bismuth silicon oxide
Bi
12
SiO
20
(BSO). BSO exhibits the Pockels effect,
is photoconductive for blue light (but not for red
light), and is a good insulator in the dark.

Modulated
light
Incident
read light
Polarizing
beamsplitter
Transparent electrode
Dichroic reflector pf red
light
BSO
- Priming: a large potential
(~ 4kV) is applied to charge
up the capacitor (BSO)
- Writing: a blue light I
W
(x, y)
illuminate BSO => the spatial
pattern of refractive index
change An(x, y) is stored.
- Reading: uniform red light is
used to read An(x, y) with the polarizing
beamsplitter playing the role of the crossed
polarizers.
- Erasing: uniform flash of blue light
Incoherent-to-Coherent Optical Converters:
In an optically addressed spatial light modulator
(such as PROM), the light used to write a spatial
pattern could be incoherent. One could use coherent
light as the read light => conversion of a spatial
distribution of natural incoherent light into a
proportional spatial distribution of coherent light!
* Useful in many optical data and image processing
applications.
+ Electro-optics of Anisotropic Media:
Pockels and Kerr Effects:
When a steady electric field E, (E
1
, E
2
, E
3
), is applied
to a crystal, elements of the tensor q are altered =>
q
ij
= q
ij
(E)
3 , 2 , 1 , , , ; ) ( = + + + =

l k j i E E E E
kl
l k ijkl
k
k ijk ij ij
s r q q
l k ij ijkl k ij ijk ij ij
E E E c c c = c c = = / ; / ; ) 0 ( where
2
2
1
q q q q s r
27 coefficients for r
ijk
(Pockels coefficients);
81 coefficients for s
ijkl
(Kerr coefficients);
Symmetry: q is symmetric => q
ij
= q
ji
=> r and s
are invariant under permutations of i and j =>
r
ijk
= r
jik
and s
ijkl
= s
jikl
. s is also invariant to
permutations of k and l => s
ijkl
= s
ijlk
;
=> r
ijk
: 18 coefficient; s
ijk
: 36 coefficient
For simplicity, replace (i, j) with a single index I.
(1, 1)1, (2, 2)2, (3, 3)3, (2,3) = (3,2)4,
(1,3) = (3,1)5, (1,2) = (2,1)6.
Similarly, replace (k, l) with a single index K.
=> r
ijk
= r
Ik
; s
ijkl
= s
IK
;
e.g. r
112
= r
12
; r
12k
= r
6k
; s
1112
= s
16
; s
1231
= s
65
;
Crystal Symmetry: add more constrains to the
entries of the r and s matrices. For example,
centrosymmetric crystals r vanishes.
Ref: F. Nye, Physical Properties of Crystals: Their
representation by Tensors and Matrices, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1984.
(
(
(
(
(

41
41
41
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
r
r
r
3m 4 cubic
e.g. GaAs,
CdTe, InAs
(
(
(
(
(

63
41
41
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
r
r
r
2m 4 Tetragonal
e.g. KDP,
ADP
(
(
(
(
(
(

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
22
51
51
33
13 22
13 22
r
r
r
r
r r
r r
-
-
-
3m Trigonal
e.g. LiNbO
3
,
LiTaO
3
;
(
(
(
(
(
(

44
44
44
11 12 12
12 11 12
12 12 11
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
s
s
s
s s s
s s s
s s s
medium
Isotropic
2 / ) (
12 11 44
s s s =
Sequence to determine the optical properties of an
anisotropic materials exhibitinf the Pockels effect
in the presence of E:
(1) Find the principal axes and principal refractive
indices n
1
, n
2
, and n
3
in the absence of E.
(2) Find the coefficients (r
ijk
)by using the
appropriate matrix for r
Ik
.
(3) Determine the elements of the impermeability
tensor using
q
ij
(0) is a diagonal matrix with elements 1/n
1
2
,
1/n
2
2
, and 1/n
3
2
.

+ =
k
k ijk ij ij
E E r ) 0 ( ) ( q q
(4) Write the equation for the modified index
ellipsoid;

(5) Determine the principal axes of the modified
index ellipsoid by diagonalizing the matrix
q
ij
(E) and find the corresponding principal
refractive indices n
1
(E), n
2
(E), and n
3
(E).
(6) Given the direction of light propagation, find
the normal modes and their associated
refractive indices by using the index ellipsoid.
1 ) ( =
j i
ij
ij
x x E q
Examples 1: Trigonal 3m crystal; uniaxial (n
1
= n
2
= n
o
, n
3
= n
e
); assume E = (0,0,E), i.e. the electric
field points along the optical axis
z
(optical
axis)
E
x
y
(
(
(

=
2
2
2
/ 1 0 0
0 / 1 0
0 0 / 1
e
o
o
n
n
n
q(0)
q
11
(0) =q
1
(0) = 1/n
o
2
;
q
22
(0) =q
2
(0) = 1/n
o
2
;
q
33
(0) =q
3
(0) = 1/n
e
2
;
q
23
= q
32
=q
4
= 0; q
13
= q
31
=q
5
= 0;
q
12
= q
21
=q
6
= 0
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

E
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
22
51
51
33
13 22
13 22
6
5
4
3
2
1
6
5
4
3
2
1
r
r
r
r
r r
r r
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
E
E
E
E
E
E
1
) (
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
1
= +
+
e o
n
x
n
x x
E n b
E n a
e
o
33
3
2
1
13
3
2
1
r
r
=
=
a a
b
E n E n
o o 13
2
2 13
2
1
/ 1 ) ( ; / 1 ) ( r r + = + = E E q q
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ; / 1 ) (
6 5 4 33
2
3
= = = + = E E E E q q q q E n
e
r
(
(
(

+
+
+
=
E n
E n
E n
e
o
o
33
2
13
2
13
2
/ 1 0 0
0 / 1 0
0 0 / 1
r
r
r
) q(E
The modified index ellipsoid is
1 ) (
1
) (
1
2
3 33
2
2
2
2
1 13
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ x E
n
x x E
n
e o
r r
E
n n
E
n n
e e o o
33
2 2
13
2 2
1
) (
1
;
1
) (
1
r r + = + =
E E
The terms r
13
E and r
33
E are usually small!
E n n E n E n n E n
e e e o o o 33
3
2
1
13
3
2
1
) ( ; ) ( r r ~ ~
Examples 2: Tetragonal 42m crystal; uniaxial
(n
1
= n
2
= n
o
, n
3
= n
e
); assume E = (0,0,E), i.e.
the electric field points along the optical axis
z
(optical
axis)
E
x
y
a a
n
e
(
(

(
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

E
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
63
41
41
6
5
4
3
2
1
6
5
4
3
2
1
r
r
r
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
E
E
E
E
E
E
(
(
(

=
2
2
2
/ 1 0 0
0 / 1 0
0 0 / 1
e
o
o
n
n
n
q(0)
2
3
2
2
2
1
/ 1 ) ( ; / 1 ) ( ; / 1 ) (
e o o
n n n = = = E E E q q q
E
63 6 5 4
) ( ; 0 ) ( ) ( r = = = E E E q q q
E n a
o 63
3
2
1
r =
The modified index ellipsoid is
1 2
2 1 63
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
1
= + +
+
x Ex
n
x
n
x x
e o
r
Rotating the coordination system 45
o
about the z
axis.
3 3 2 1 2 2 1 1
; 2 / ) ( ; 2 / ) ( let x u x x u x x u = + = =
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
= + +
E n
u
E n
u
E n
u
e
o o
n E n E
n E n
E
n E n
= = + = ) ( ;
1
) (
1
;
1
) (
1
where
3 63
2 2
2
63
2 2
1
r r
The terms r
63
E is usually small!
e e
o o
o o
n E n
E n n E n
E n n E n
=
+ ~
~
) (
) (
) (
63
3
2
1
2
63
3
2
1
1
r
r
The optical properties of a Kerr medium can be
determined by using similar sequence!
Properties of some electro-optic materials at 633 nm
Material Crystal symmetry r coefficient (pm/V) n c
Inorganic
KDP (KH
2
PO
4
)

KD
*
P (KD
2
PO
4
)

LiNbO
3

BSN

GaAs

Organic
MNA
DCNP
42m

42m

3m

4mm

43m


m
m
r
41
= 8;
r
63
= 11
r
63
= 24

r
13
= 9.6;
r
41
= 30.9
r
13
= 67;
r
33
= 1340
r
41
= 0.97


r
11
= 65
r
33
= 82
n
0
= 1.5074
n
e
= 1.4669

n
e
= 1.462
n
0
= 2.286
n
e
= 2.200
n
0
= 2.312
n
e
= 2.299
n = 3.32



n
x
= 1.9; n
y
= 2.8
c
1
= 44
c
2
= 21
c
3
= 48

c
1
= 78
c
3
= 32


c ~ 10
Modulators:
Phase modulators
3
0
n L
d
V
r

t
=
When an electric field is directed along the optical
axis of 3m crystal (previous example)
Longitudinal Modulator: the linearly polarized
light travels along the optical axis (z) => n = n
o

, r = r
13
, and d = L.
Transverse Modulator: the linearly polarized light
travels along the x axis => n = n
e
and r = r
33
.
Intensity Modulator
3
2 2
3
1 1
0
n n L
d
V
r r
=

t
When an electric
field is directed along the optical axis of 42m
crystal; assume a longitudinal modulator (d = L)=>
n
1
= n
2
= n
o
, r
1
= r
63
, r
2
= -r
63 3
63
0
2
o
n
V
r

t
=
+ Photorefractive Materials:
Photorefractive materials exhibit photoconductive
and electro-optic behavior => photoinduced charges
=> space charge distribution => internal electric
field => alter the refractive index (local) =>
detect and store the spatial distributions of optical
intensity
- Light shines on photorefractive material => free
charge carriers (electrons or holes) generated
from impurity level (Rate Power) => carriers
diffuse away leaving charges of opposite sign
(ions) => inhomogeneous space charge (remain in
place for a period of time after the light is removed
) => localized internal field => local refractive
index difference by virtue of Pockels effect!
- Important photorefractive material:
BaTiO
3
(barium titanate), BSO, LiNbO
3
(lithium
niobate), KNbO
3
(potassium niobate), GaAs, SBN
(strontium barium niobate)
Valence
band
Conduction
band
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
a
b
c
+++
--- ---
a: photoionization
b: diffusion
c: recombination
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+e

Fe
3+
light
e e
Simplified Theory of Photorefractivity:
A photorefractive material is illuminated by light of
intensity I(x) that varies in the x direction => An(x)
- Photogeneration: rate of photoionization G(x)
I(x) and available ionization sites
) ( ) ( ) ( x I N N s x G
D D
+
=
N
D
: number density of donor; N
D
+
: number density of ionized donor;
s: probability of ionization; ionization cross section
- Diffusion: I(x) is nonuniform => number density
of electron n(x) is also nonuniform => electron
diffused
- Recombination: the electron recombination rate
R(x) n(x) and number density of ionized
donors N
D
+
(traps).
+
=
D R
N x n x R ) ( ) (

R
: a constant; probability of recombination;
In equilibrium, R(x)=G(x)
) ( ) )( ( ) ( ) ( x G N N x sI N x n x R
D D D R
= = =
+ +

) ( ) ( x I
N
N N s
x n
D
D D
R
+
+

- Space charge: electron generated leaves behind a

positive ionic charge; when the electron is trapped,
its negative charge is deposited at a different site.
- Electric field: space charge => electric field;
determined by observing that in steady state the
drift current and diffusion current must be balanced
dx dn T k x E x n e J
e B e
/ ) ( ) ( = = T k D
B e
= /

e
: electron mobility; D: diffusivity Einstein relation
dx
dn
x n e
T k
x E
B
) (
1
) ( =
- Refractive index: ) ( ) (
3
2
1
x E n x n r = A
Assume that (N
D
/N
D
+
-1) ~ constant, independent of
x => n(x) I(x)
dx
dI
x I e
T k
x E
B
) (
1
) ( =
dx
dI
x I e
T k
n x n
B
) (
1
2
1
) (
3
r = A
Example: an intensity distribution in the form of a
sinusoidal grating of period A, contrast m, and mean
intensity I
0
.
)
2
cos 1 ( ) (
0
A
+ =
x
m I x I
t
The electric field and the refractive index
distributions:
) / 2 cos( 1
) / 2 sin(
) (
) / 2 cos( 1
) / 2 sin(
) (
max
max
A +
A
A = A
A +
A
=
x m
x
n x n
x m
x
E x E
t
t
t
t
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
I
n
E
An
Recombination
at traps
max
3
2
1
max
max
) / ( 2
E n n
e T k m E
B
r = A
A = t