Chapter 24

Gausss Law
Electric Flux
Electric flux is the
product of the
magnitude of the
electric field and the
surface area, A,
perpendicular to the
field

E
= EA
Lines per unit area is
proportional to electric
field and the total number
of lines penetrating the
surface is proportional to
the electric flux
E

Electric Flux, General Area
The electric flux is
proportional to the
number of electric field
lines penetrating some
surface
The field lines may
make some angle
with the perpendicular
to the surface
Then
E
= EA cos
Electric Flux, Interpreting the
Equation
The flux is a maximum when the surface is
perpendicular to the field
The flux is zero when the surface is parallel
to the field
If the field varies over the surface,
= EA cos is valid for only a small element
of the area
Electric Flux, General
In the more general
case, look at a small
area element

In general, this
becomes


cos
E i i i i i
E A Au = A = A E A
0
surface
lim
i
E i i
A
E
E A
d
A
u = A
u =

}
E A
Electric Flux, final
The surface integral means the integral must
be evaluated over the surface in question
In general, the value of the flux will depend
both on the field pattern and on the surface
The units of electric flux will be N
.
m
2
/C
Electric Flux, Closed Surface
Assume a closed
surface
The vectors point in
different directions
At each point, they are
perpendicular to the
surface
By convention, they point
outward
i
AA

PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Flux Through Closed Surface,
cont.
At (1), the field lines are crossing the surface from the inside
to the outside; < 90
o
, is positive
At (2), the field lines graze surface; = 90
o
, = 0
At (3), the field lines are crossing the surface from the outside
to the inside;180
o
> > 90
o
, is negative
Flux Through Closed Surface,
final
The net flux through the surface is
proportional to the net number of lines
leaving the surface
This net number of lines is the number of lines
leaving the surface minus the number entering
the surface
If E
n
is the component of E perpendicular to
the surface, then

E n
d E dA u = =
} }
E A
Flux Through a Cube, Example
The field lines pass
through two surfaces
perpendicularly and are
parallel to the other four
surfaces
For side 1, u = -El
2
For side 2, u = El
2
For the other sides,
E = 0
Therefore, E
total
= 0

Karl Friedrich Gauss
1777 1855
Made contributions in
Electromagnetism
Number theory
Statistics
Non-Euclidean geometry
Cometary orbital
mechanics
A founder of the German
Magnetic Union
Studies the Earths
magnetic field


Gausss Law, Introduction
Gausss law is an expression of the general
relationship between the net electric flux
through a closed surface and the charge
enclosed by the surface
The closed surface is often called a gaussian
surface
Gausss law is of fundamental importance in
the study of electric fields
Gausss Law General
A positive point charge,
q, is located at the
center of a sphere of
radius r
The magnitude of the
electric field
everywhere on the
surface of the sphere is
E = k
e
q / r
2

Gausss Law General, cont.
The field lines are directed radially outward and
are perpendicular to the surface at every point

This will be the net flux through the gaussian
surface (the sphere of radius r)
We know E = k
e
q/r
2
(r is constant, and so is E over
the whole Guassian surface) and A
sphere
= 4r
2
,

E
d E dA u = =
} }
E A
4
E e
o
q
k q

u = =
Gausss Law General, notes
The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point
charge, q, is given by q/
o
and is independent of the shape
of that surface
The net electric flux through a closed surface that
surrounds no charge is zero
Since the electric field due to many charges is the vector
sum of the electric fields produced by the individual
charges, the flux through any closed surface can be
expressed as

( )
1 2
d d = +
} }
E A E E A
Gaussian Surface, Example
Closed surfaces of
various shapes can
surround the charge
Only S
1
is spherical
Verifies the net flux
through any closed
surface surrounding a
point charge q is given
by q/c
o
and is
independent of the
shape of the surface
Gaussian Surface, Example 2
The charge is outside
the closed surface with
an arbitrary shape
Any field line entering
the surface leaves at
another point
Verifies the electric flux
through a closed
surface that surrounds
no charge is zero
Gausss Law Final
Gausss law states

q
in
is the net charge inside the surface
represents the electric field at any point on the
surface
is the total electric field and may have contributions from
charges both inside and outside of the surface
Although Gausss law can, in theory, be solved to
find for any charge configuration, in practice it is
limited to symmetric situations
E
in
E
o
q
d

u = =
}
E A
E
E
Applying Gausss Law
To use Gausss law, you want to choose a
gaussian surface over which the surface
integral can be simplified and the electric field
determined
Take advantage of symmetry
Remember, the gaussian surface is a surface
you choose, it does not have to coincide with
a real surface
Conditions for a Gaussian
Surface
Try to choose a surface that satisfies one or more of
these conditions:
The value of the electric field can be argued from
symmetry to be constant over the surface
The dot product of can be expressed as a simple
algebraic product EdA because and are parallel
The dot product is 0 because and are perpendicular
The field is zero over the portion of the surface
E
d E A
E dA
dA
Field Due to a Spherically
Symmetric Charge Distribution
Select a sphere as the
gaussian surface
For r >a




in
2 2
4
E
o
e
o
q
d EdA

Q Q
E k
r r
u = = =
= =
} }
E A
Spherically Symmetric, cont.
Select a sphere as the
gaussian surface, r < a
q
in
< Q
q
in
= Q[(4/3)r
3
)/(4/3)a
3
]
in
in
2 3
4
E
o
e
o
q
d EdA

q Q
E k r
r a
u = = =
= =
} }
E A
Spherically Symmetric
Distribution, final
Inside the sphere, E
varies linearly with r
E 0 as r 0
The field outside the
sphere is equivalent to
that of a point charge
located at the center of
the sphere
Field at a Distance from a Line
of Charge
Select a cylindrical
charge distribution
The cylinder has a radius
of r and a length of
is constant in
magnitude and
perpendicular to the
surface at every point
on the curved part of
the surface
E
Field Due to a Line of Charge,
cont.
The end view confirms
the field is
perpendicular to the
curved surface
The field through the
ends of the cylinder is 0
since the field is
parallel to these
surfaces
Field Due to a Line of Charge,
final
Use Gausss law to find the field

( )
in
2
2
2
E
o
o
e
o
q
d EdA

E r

E k
r r
u = = =
=
= =
} }
E A
Field Due to a Plane of Charge
must be
perpendicular to the
plane and must have
the same magnitude at
all points equidistant
from the plane
Choose a small cylinder
whose axis is
perpendicular to the
plane for the gaussian
surface
E
Field Due to a Plane of Charge,
cont
is parallel to the curved surface and there is
no contribution to the surface area from this
curved part of the cylinder
The flux through each end of the cylinder is
EA and so the total flux is 2EA
E
Field Due to a Plane of Charge,
final
The total charge in the surface is A
Applying Gausss law


Note, this does not depend on r
Therefore, the field is uniform everywhere
2
2
E
o o
A
EA and E

u = = =
Electrostatic Equilibrium
When there is no net motion of charge
within a conductor, the conductor is said to
be in electrostatic equilibrium
Properties of a Conductor in
Electrostatic Equilibrium
The electric field is zero everywhere inside the
conductor
Whether the conductor is solid or hollow
If an isolated conductor carries a charge, the charge
resides on its surface
The electric field just outside a charged conductor is
perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude of
/
o
o is the surface charge density at that point
On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface
charge density is greatest at locations where the
radius of curvature is the smallest
Property 1: Field
inside
= 0
Consider a conducting slab in
an external field
If the field inside the
conductor were not zero, free
electrons in the conductor
would experience an
electrical force
These electrons would
accelerate
These electrons would not be
in equilibrium
Therefore, there cannot be a
field inside the conductor
E
Property 1: Field
inside
= 0, cont.
Before the external field is applied, free electrons
are distributed throughout the conductor
When the external field is applied, the electrons
redistribute until the magnitude of the internal field
equals the magnitude of the external field
There is a net field of zero inside the conductor
This redistribution takes about 10
-16
s and can be
considered instantaneous
Property 2: Charge Resides on
the Surface
Choose a gaussian surface
inside but close to the actual
surface
The electric field inside is
zero (prop. 1)
There is no net flux through
the gaussian surface
Because the gaussian
surface can be as close to
the actual surface as desired,
there can be no charge inside
the surface
Property 2: Charge Resides on
the Surface, cont
Since no net charge can be inside the
surface, any net charge must reside on the
surface
Gausss law does not indicate the distribution
of these charges, only that it must be on the
surface of the conductor
Property 3: Fields Magnitude
and Direction
Choose a cylinder as
the gaussian surface
The field must be
perpendicular to the
surface
If there were a parallel
component to , charges
would experience a force
and accelerate along the
surface and it would not
be in equilibrium
E
Property 3: Fields Magnitude
and Direction, cont.
The net flux through the gaussian surface is
through only the flat face outside the
conductor
The field here is perpendicular to the surface
Applying Gausss law

E
o o
A
EA and E

u = = =
Sphere and Shell Example
Conceptualize
Similar to the sphere
example
Now a charged sphere is
surrounded by a shell
Note charges
Categorize
System has spherical
symmetry
Gauss Law can be
applied


PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Sphere and Shell Example
Analyze
Construct a Gaussian sphere between the
surface of the solid sphere and the inner surface
of the shell
The electric field lines must be directed radially
outward and be constant in magnitude on the
Gaussian surface
Sphere and Shell Example, 3
Analyze, cont
The electric field for each area can be calculated

1
3
2
2
3
4
2
( )
( )
0 ( )
( )
e
e
e
Q
E k r for r a
a
Q
E k for a r b
r
E for b r c
Q
E k for r c
r
= <
= < <
= < <
= >
Sphere and Shell Example
Finalize
Check the net charge
Think about other possible combinations
What if the sphere were conducting instead of
insulating?