Current Electricity

Current electricity –
chap 21,22,23
Electric Charge
• Electric current = a flow of electric
charges. The electrons, which orbit
the nucleus at relatively large
distances can sometimes become
free to move → electric current.
• Electric charge is measured in

coulombs (C)
• The charge on an electron = e
= 1.6 x10-19C
Conductors and
insulators
• Conductor – substance which
allows electric current to flow
through it
• Insulator – substance which

does not allow electric current
to flow through it
Current
Electric current (I)= amount of
charge passing a point every
second.
Measured in Amperes (A).
Measured using an ammeter, or
for very small currents, a
galvanometer
Current = Charge / time

I=Q/t
Conventional Current.
• Current = movement of electrons
• Electrons move from negative to
positive
• However traditionally current was
thought of as flowing from positive
terminal of a battery to the negative
(wrong way round)
• We still use this convention today-
current is thought of as flowing from
positive to negative (conventional
current)
DC and AC
• Two types of current exist
• Direct current-always flows in
the same direction – this is the
type of current you get from a
battery
• Alternating current – here the
current reverses direction many
times per second-this is the
type of current you get from the
mains
Potential difference
• Water flows in a pipe if there is a
height difference between the two
ends-similarly current flows in a
conductor if there is a potential
difference between the two ends.
• The potential difference between
two points is defined as the energy
lost by one coulomb as it moves
from one point to the other-
measured in volts.
• 1Volt = 1joule per coulomb
Definition of potential
difference
• Since work = energy we can
also define potential difference
as
• Potential difference = work
done in bringing a unit charge
from one point to the other
• V=W/Q
Electrical power
• W=VQ
• W / t = V Q/t
• But Q/t = I
• Thus W/t = VI
• W/t = rate of doing work which is
called the power
• P = VI
Electromotive force
(emf)
• EMF = the voltage between two
ends of a circuit when no
current is flowing in the circuit
Sources of EMF
1. Electric cells-convert chemical
energy to electrical energy
Consists of 2 different metals (the
electrodes) immersed in a
substance called an electrolyte.
A battery consists of a no. of cells
connected together (a car battery =
6 2V cells in series)
Primary cell
Battery of
cells
Simple Cell
• Cu plate and Zn Plate in a
beaker of dilute sulphuric acid
The plates react
with the acid –
Zn plate
Cu Zn becomes neg.
charged, Cu +.
Dilute Thus a potential
sulphuric
acid
difference
exists so
electrons can
flow from neg to
+ plate
Primary and Secondary
cells
• Primary cell = cell which cannot
be recharged-once the
chemicals are used up it must
be discarded (e.g. dry battery)
• Secondary cell = cell which can
be recharged (usually by
pushing current through it in the
wrong direction) (e.g. car
battery)
Ohm’s Law
• For a metallic conductor at
constant temperature, the
current flowing through the
conductor is directly
proportional to the p.d. across
the conductor
• V = constant I
• The constant = resistance
• V=IR
Resistance
• Electric currents (electrons)

flow through conductors.
• As they do so they collide with
atoms in the conductor and so
lose energy.
• The material of the conductor
RESISTS the current
• If a conductor has a large
resistance, then a large p.d. will only
give a small current
• If a conductor has a small
resistance, then a large p.d. will give
a large current
• R=V/I
• Resistance is measured in Ohms.
• A conductor has resistance 1 Ω if the
current through it is 1 amp when the
p.d. = 1V
To measure resistance
• Two ways
1. using an ohmmeter
2. by measuring current and
voltage and using the formula
that V=IR
Experiment
• To demonstrate Ohm’s Law

P258
Resistors
• Devices specially made to have

a certain value of resistance
• Can be either fixed or variable
• Variable resistor-either a
rheostat or a potentiometer – by
moving the sliding contact you
vary how much of the wire the
current must pass through (i.e.
the resistance)
Connecting Circuits
• 2 ways to
connect R3
R1 R2
• Series
R1
• Parallel
R2
R3
Series Circuit
• Current has only one path →

Itotal = I1 =I2 =I3
Voltages add
Vtotal = V1 +V2 +V3
From Ohm’s law V = I R→
Itotal Rtotal= I1R1 +I2R2 +I3R3→
Rtotal= R1 +R2 +R3

Parallel Circuit
• Current has several paths →
Itotal = I1 +I2 +I3
Voltages stay the same
Vtotal = V1 =V2 =V3
From Ohm’s law V = I R→
Vtotal /Rtotal= V1/R1 +V2/R2 +V3/R3→
1/ Rtotal= 1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3
• Do questions p260
Kirchoff’s Laws
• The sum of the currents

entering a junction = sum of the
currents leaving the junction
• The emf across the circuit =

sum of the emfs across the
individual parts of the circuit
Measuring current and
voltage
• Currents are measured using an
AMMETER which is placed in
SERIES
• Voltages are measured using a

VOLTMETER which is placed in
PARALLEL
Factors effecting
resistance
• Resistance of a conductor
depends on
• Length of conductor (l)
• Temperature of the conductor
• The cross sectional area of the
conductor
• The material from which the
conductor is made
Effect of temperature on
resistance of a metal
• The resistance of a metal increases
with increasing temp.
• As the temperature of the metal
increases the atoms of the metal
vibrate more. This means that as the
electrons try to pass through
(electric current) they collide more
and so lose energy →resistance
increases
Ctd. • For moderate
changes in temp. the
change in resistance
is proportional to the
Resistance Ω
change in temp. –
graph does not pass
through the origin
thus the resistance
Temp T/oC
changes linearly with
temperature (NOT
directly proportional)
Effect of temperature on
resistance of semiconductors
or insulators
• In an insulator (or cold
semiconductor) there are no
electrons free to move and so no
current.
• As you heat the semiconductor some
electrons break free of their bonds
and so become free for
conduction→the resistance
decreases
Thermistor
• This is a semiconductor whose

resistance decreases rapidly
with increasing temp.
• NOTE the relationship is not
linear
Resistance Ω
Temp. T
Experiment
• To investigate the resistance of

a metallic conductor with temp.
P263
• To investigate the resistance of
a thermistor with temperature
P264
Other factors affecting
resistance
• At constant temperature the
resistance of a conductor
depends on
• Length
• Cross-sectional area
• The material from which the
conductor is made
• Experimentally it can be shown
• R∝l
• R ∝ 1/A
• Thus R∝l/A
• Thus R = constant l / A
• This constant is called the
resistivity (ρ) and depends on
the material of the conductor
• Thus R=ρl/A
• often, we are measuring the
resistance of wires. In these
cases the cross sectional area
is the area of a circle A = πr2
where r = radius
• Thus R = ρ l / πr2
• Or, since r = d/2 (where d =
diameter) R = ρ 4l / πd2
Resistivity (ρ)
• Defined as the resistance per

unit length per unit cross
sectional area
• ρ = RA / l
• Do questions p269
Experiment
• To measure the resistivity of
the material of a wire
• Use a micrometer screw gague

to measure the diameter of the
wire at several places, then
take an average
• Measure R using ohmmeter, or
by measuring current and
voltage
Wheatstone bridge
• A device for
B
measuring the value R1 R2
of an unknown
resistance A
C
• The values of the R3
resistances are R4
D
varied until no
current flows
through the
galvanometer
• At this point, the potential at B
=potential at D (since no current
flows)
• Thus p.d. between A and B =
p.d. between A and D (VAB=VAD)
• Similarly VBC = VDC
• From Ohm’s law V = IR
• I1R1 = I2R3
• I1R2 = I2R4
• Thus
• R1 / R2 = R3 / R4
• Thus, if three of the resistors
are known, you can calculate
the value of the last.
• Experimentally a resistor is
placed in series with the
galvanometer to protect it from
too much current. This resistor
is then removed when the
aprox. balance point is found
Metre bridge
• This uses the same logic as the
wheatstone bridge, but two of
the resistors are replaced by a
length of wire. A sliding contact
divides the wire into two
lengths, and so into 2
resistances. This makes it
easier to adjust the resistance
R2
R1
Length of wire L2
L1
• The position of the sliding

contact varies L1 and L2
• We know from the wheatstone
bridge circuit R1 / R2 = R3 / R4
• In this case R3 and R4 are wires

of uniform cross section (A) and
the same material (ρ is the
same)
• Thus R3 =constant L1
• R4 = constant L2
• R1 / R2 =L1 / L2
Uses of wheatstone
bridge circuits
• Temperature control – in this
case the wheatstone bridge
starts balanced. If the
temperature of one of the
resistors changes then its
resistance will change, the
bridge will no longer be
balanced and so current flows
through the galvanometer.
• The size and direction of the
current indicate the size and
direction of the temperature
change, and so can be used to
control a heater and bring the
temp. back to its original value
• Fail-safe device – if the pilot
light in a gas boiler goes out,
you need the gas to shut off
automatically.
• A thermistor placed near the
flame is used as one resistor in
a wheatstone bridge. If the
flame goes out the resistance
increases, unbalances the
bridge and current flows in the
galvanometer. This current can
be used to cut off the fuel
Potential divider circuit
• If two or more resistors are

connected in series the total
potential difference is divided
between the resistors.
• The bigger the resistor the bigger
the potential across it (if one resistor
is much bigger than the other
effectively all the p.d. is across the
big resistor)
Ctd.
• Such a system of resistors is
known as a potential divider
circuit-used when a smaller p.d.
is required than the supply
The value of Vout

Vout depends on R1
R1
and R2
R2
Variable potential
divider circuit
• Two resistors replaced by a
variable resistor. The output
voltage increases from O V
when the contact is at A to the
max input voltage when the
contact is at B
A
Vout

Current Electricity

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Current Electricity

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Current electricity –

• Electric charge is measured in

• Insulator – substance which

Current = Charge / time

• Electric currents (electrons)

• To demonstrate Ohm’s Law

• Devices specially made to have

• Current has only one path →

Rtotal= R1 +R2 +R3

1/ Rtotal= 1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3

• The sum of the currents

• The emf across the circuit =

• Voltages are measured using a

• This is a semiconductor whose

• To investigate the resistance of

• Defined as the resistance per

• Use a micrometer screw gague

• The position of the sliding

• In this case R3 and R4 are wires

• If two or more resistors are

The value of Vout

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