Selected Topics in DSP For Wireless: Jean-Paul M.G. Linnartz Nat - Lab., Philips Research

Selected Topics in DSP for Wireless
Jean-Paul M.G. Linnartz

Nat.Lab., Philips Research
DSP aspects
Source Coding (Speech coding)
Synchronization
Detection and matched filtering
Diversity and rake receivers
Multi-user detection
Equalization or subcarrier retrieval
Error Correction
Security & cryptographic algorithms

Outline
The Matched Filter Principle
Diversity
Diversity Techniques: The choice of the domain
Diversity Techniques: The signal processing
Performance
Space time coding
Code Division Multiple Access
Direct Sequence Basics
Rake receiver

The optimum receiver for any signal
in Additive white Gaussian Noise
over a Linear Time-Invariant Channel
is a matched filter:
Integrate
E
Locally stored reference
copy of transmit signal
Channel Noise
Transmit
Signal

Integrate
E
copy of transmit signal for 1
Channel Noise
Transmit Signal,
either S
0
(t) for 0

or S
1
(t) for 1
Integrate
E
copy of transmit signal for 0
S
1
(t)
S
0
(t)
Select
largest
Fundamentals of Diversity Reception
What is diversity?
Diversity is a technique to combine several copies of the same
message received over different channels.

Why diversity?
To improve link performance

Methods for obtaining multiple replicas

Antenna Diversity
Site Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Time Diversity
Polarization Diversity
Angle Diversity

Antenna (or micro) diversity.
- at the mobile
Covariance of received signal amplitude
J
0
2
(2f
D
) = J
0
2
(2d/).
antenna spacing of /2 is enough

- at the base station
All signal come from approximately the same direction
received signals are highly correlated
Larger antenna separation needed
Relevant parameter:
distance between scattering objects antenna (typically, a is 10
.. 100 meters), and
distance between mobile and base station.

Site (or macro) diversity

Receiving antennas are located at different sites.
Example: at the different corners of hexagonal cell.
Advantage: multipath fading, shadowing, path loss
and interference all become "independent"

Angle diversity

Waves from different angles of arrival are combined
optimally, rather than with random phase
Directional antennas receive only a fraction of all
scattered energy.

Frequency diversity

Each message is transmitted at different carrier
frequencies simultaneously
Frequency separation >> coherence bandwidth

Time diversity

Each message is transmitted more than once.
Useful for moving terminals
Similar concept: Slow frequency hopping (SFH):
blocks of bits are transmitted at different carrier
frequencies.

Selection Methods
Selection Diversity
Equal Gain Combining
Maximum Ratio Combining

Advanced filtering
if interference is present
wiener filtering (MMSE), smart antennas, adaptive beam
steering, space-time coding
Post-detection combining:
Signals in all branches are detected separately
Baseband signals are combined.

Pure selection diversity
Select only the strongest signal
In practice: select the highest signal + interference +
noise power.
Use delay and hysteresis to avoid ping-pong effects
(excessive switching back and forth)

Simple implementation: Threshold Diversity
Switch when current power drops below a threshold
This avoids the necessity of separate receivers for
each diversity branch.

Exercise: Selection Diversity
The fade margin of a Rayleigh-fading signal is q.
A receiver can choose the strongest signal from L
antennas, each receiving an independent signal
power.

What is the probability that the signal is x dB or more
below the threshold?

Solution: Diversity
Diversity rule:
Select strongest signal.

Outage probability for selection diversity:
Pr(max(p) < p
thr
) = Pr(all(p) < p
thr
) = H
i
Pr(p
i
< p
thr
)

For L-branch selection diversity in Rayleigh fading:

( )
{ }
| |
Pr max( ) / exp / p p -
L
< = q q 1 1
Outage Probability Versus Fade Margin
Performance improves very
slowly with increased transmit
power
Diversity Improves
performance by orders of
magnitude
Slope of the curve is
proportional to order of diversity
Only if fading is independent
for all antennas
Better signal combining methods exist:
Equal gain, Maximum ratio, Interference Rejection Combining
Performance of Diversity
In a fading channel, diversity helps to improve the slope
of the BER curve.
Explain why coding can play the same role.
Diversity can be used to combat noise and fading, but
also to separate different user signals.

Diversity Combining Methods
Each branch is
co-phased with the other branches
weighted by factor a
i
where a
i
depends on
amplitude
i

Selection diversity
a
i
= 1 if
i
, >
j
, for all j = i and 0 otherwise.
Equal Gain Combining: a
i
=1 for all i.
Maximum Ratio Combining: a
i
=
i
.

Maximum ratio combining
Weigh signals proportional to their amplitude.

MRC:
a
i
= constant r
i

This is the same as matched filter
After some math:
SNR at the output is the sum of the SNRs at all the input
branches
Comparison
Technique: Circuit Complexity: C/N improvement factor:
Threshold simple, cheap 1 +
T
/ exp(-
T
/) for L = 2
single receiver optimum for
T
/: 1 + e ~1.38
Selection L receivers 1 + 1/2 + .. + 1/L
EGC L receivers 1 + (L - 1) /4
co-phasing
MRC L receivers L
co-phasing
channel estimator
Space-Time Coding (MIMO)
Multiple Input Multiple Output concept:

In a rich multipath environment, a system with N
transmit antennas and M receive antennas can
handle min(N,M) simultaneous communication
streams.
Direct Sequence CDMA
Direct Sequence
User data stream is multiplied by a fast code sequence

Example:
User bits 101 (+ - +)
Code 1110100 (+ + + - + - -); spead factor = 7

EXOR
User Bits
Code Sequence
1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1
User bit
-1
= 1 User bit
0
= -1 User bit
+1
= 1
User separation in Direct Sequence
Different users have different (orthogonal ?) codes.
Integrate
E
Code 1
Code 1: c
1
(t)
User Data 1
User Data 2
Code 2: c
2
(t)
E
t
c
i
(t) c
j
(t) = M if i = j
= 0 if i = j
Multipath Separation in DS
Different delayed signals are orthogonal
Integrate
E
Code 1
Code 1: c
1
(t)
User Data 1
E
t
c
i
(t) c
i
(t) = M
E
t
c
i
(t) c
i
(t+T) = 0 if T = 0
Delay T
Popular Codes: m-sequences
Linear Feedback Shift Register Codes:
Maximal length: M = 2
L
- 1. Why?
Every bit combination occurs once
(except 0
L
)
Autocorrelation is 2
L
- 1 or -1

Maximum length occurs for specific
polynomia only
=
=
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
M
m
k m c m c k R
correlation:
R(k) M
k
D D D
= EXOR
addition mod 2
Popular Codes: Walsh-Hadamard
Basic Code (1,1) and (1,-1)

Recursive method to get a code twice as
long
Length of code is 2
l

Perfectly orthogonal
Poor auto correlation properties
Poor spectral spreading. E.g. all 1 code.
1 1
1 -1
R
2
= [ ]

R
2i
=[ ]

R
4
=[ ]

R
i
R
i

R
i
-R
i
1 1 1 1
1 -1 1 -1
1 1 -1 -1
1 -1 -1 1
One column is the code for one user
Cellular CDMA
IS-95: proposed by Qualcomm
W-CDMA: future UMTS standard

Advantages of CDMA
Soft handoff
Soft capacity
Multipath tolerance: lower fade margins needed
No need for frequency planning
Cellular CDMA
Problems
Self Interference
Dispersion causes shifted versions of the codes signal to
interfere
Near-far effect and power control
CDMA performance is optimized if all signals are received
with the same power
Frequent update needed
Performance is sensitive to imperfections of only a dB
Convergence problems may occur
Synchronous DS: Downlink
In the forward or downlink (base-to-mobile): all signals
originate at the base station and travel over the same
path.
One can easily exploit orthogonality of user signals. It is
fairly simple to reduce mutual interference from users
within the same cell, by assigning orthogonal Walsh-
Hadamard codes.
BS
MS 2
MS 1
IS-95 Forward link (Down)
Logical channels for pilot, paging, sync and traffic.
Chip rate 1.2288 Mchip/s = 128 times 9600 bit/sec
Codes:
Length 64 Walsh-Hadamard (for orthogonality users)
maximum length code sequence (for effective spreading and
multipath resistance
Transmit bandwidth 1.25 MHz
Convolutional coding with rate 1/2
IS-95 BS Transmitter
PNI
PNQ
C
o
m
b
i
n
i
n
g
,

w
e
i
g
h
t
i
n
g

a
n
d

q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

m
o
d
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

Pilot: DC-signal
W
0
W
0
W
j
User
data
Long code
Block
interleaver
Convol.
Encoder
Sync data
EXOR (addition mod 2)
Asynchronous DS: uplink
In the reverse or uplink (mobile-to-base), it is
technically difficult to ensure that all signals arrive
with perfect time alignment at the base station.
Different channels for different signals
power control needed
BS
MS 2
MS 1
IS-95 Reverse link (Up)
Every user uses the same set of short sequences for
modulation as in the forward link.
Length = 2
15
(modified 15 bit LFSR).
Each access channel and each traffic channel gets a
different long PN sequence.
Used to separate the signals from different users.
Walsh codes are used solely to provide m-ary
orthogonal modulation waveform.
Rate 1/3 convolutional coding.
Rake receiver
A rake receiver for Direct Sequence SS
optimally combines energy from signals
over various delayed propagation paths.
DS reception: Matched Filter Concept
The optimum receiver for any signal
in Additive white Gaussian Noise
over a Linear Time-Invariant Channel
is a matched filter:
Integrate
E
Channel Noise
Transmit
Signal
Matched Filter with Dispersive Channel
What is an optimum receiver?
Channel Noise
Transmit
Signal
H(f)
Integrate
E
H
-1
(f)
Integrate
E
H(f)
H(f)
Rake Receiver
1956: Price & Green
Two implementations of the
rake receiver:
Delayed reference
Delayed signal
Integrate
E
H(f)
D D D
Channel
estimate
D D D
H*(f)
Channel
estimate
Ref code sequence
E
Ref code sequence
BER of Rake
Ignoring ISI, the local-mean BER is

where

with
i
the local-mean
SNR in branch i.
(
(
+
=
=
1
1
2
1
0
j
j
L
j
j
R
BER
t
t

j
j
j i
i
i j
L
R
=
[
=
=
1
J. Proakis, Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill, Chapter 7.
Wire
less
L
R
= 1
L
R
= 2
L
R
= 3
BER
E
b
/N
0
Advanced user separation in DS
More advanced signal separation and
multi-user detection receivers exist.

Matched filters
Successive subtraction
Decorrelating receiver
Minimum Mean-Square Error
(MMSE)
Optimum
MMSE
Decorrelator
Matched F.
E
b
/N
0
S
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

b
i
t
s
/
c
h
i
p

Source: Sergio Verdu
Software radio
Many functions are executed in software anyhow
There are many different radio standards, multi-mode is
the way to go.
Can we share functions?
Can we realize a steep cost reduction on DSP
platforms?
Architectural choices:
what to make in dedicated hardware?
what to do in programmable filters?
which operations are done by a general purpose
processor?

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Jean-Paul M.G. Linnartz

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