Introduction to Developmental Anatomy

Dr. Nitin Vishwakarma

Course Objectives
Describe the prenatal stages of development from fertilization

of ovum to the birth of new individual.

Explain the embryologic basis for in-born errors of metabolism and all congenital anomalies Apply the knowledge gotten from these lectures to clinically prevent, or treat such anomalies. Integrate the concepts in embryology as they study and acquire rational understudy of adult gross anatomy.

Components of Neuroscience Course

Lectures Course materials
- Text book
- Atlas

Small Group learning Clinical Case Discussions Quizzes Question Bank

Lectures

General Embryology
Introduction Gametogenesis Fertilization and First Week Second Week Third Week Fourth Week Placenta and Fetal Membranes Fetal period, Teratology and Twinning

Systemic Embryology - I
Skeletal System Muscular System Eye, Ear and Ingetumentary System Development of Body Cavities

Systemic Embryology - II
Development of Pharyngeal Apparatus Head and Neck Development of Respiratory System Development of Digestive System Development of Urogenital System Development of Cardiovascular System

Books

What will be in Exams?

The examination format will be multiple choice questions. Midterm examination Final examination: Whole syllabus

Form your study groups now

Attendance
Mandatory to maintain at least 80% Criteria for satisfactory academic progress Monitored Required by Accreditation agencies If students attendance falls below 80% they will not be allowed to sit for the final examination.

Contact Information
E-mail : [email protected] Phone - 7153192 Need Individual Help: Office hours: Monday to Friday Will be informed later. Please make an appointment by email

Human Development 1
Dr. Nitin Vishwakarma Spartan

Objectives
To study the periods of embryonic development and know their importance. To analyze the terms used in developmental anatomy.

 Human development is a continuous process that begins when an Oocyte (ovum) from a female is Fertilized by a sperm from a male zygote.

 Zygote will undergo cell division, cell migration, programmed cell death, differentiation, growth and cell rearrangement multicellular human being.

Developmental Periods
1. Prenatal period before birth - most visible advances occur during the 3rd to 8th weeks of embryonic development - during fetal period, differentiation and growth of tissues and organs occur. 2. Postnatal after birth

Terminology
- Oocyte ovum (egg) - Sperm spermatos seed - zygote results from the union of an oocyte and a sperm during fertilization. - the beginning of a new human being.

 Gestational Age. It is difficult to determine exactly when fertilization (conception) occurs because the process cannot be observed in vivo (within the living body).

 Physicians calculate the age of the embryo or fetus from the presumed first day of the last normal menstrual period. - This is the gestational age, which is approximately 2 weeks longer than the fertilization age because the oocyte is not fertilized until approximately 2 weeks after the preceding menstruation.

 Cleavage - This is the series of mitotic cell divisions of the zygote that result in the formation of early embryonic cells blastomeres. - The size of the cleaving zygote remains unchanged because at each succeeding cleavage division, the blastomeres become smaller.

 Morula (L. morus, mulberry). - This solid mass of 12 to approximately 32

blastomeres is formed by cleavage of a zygote. - The blastomeres change their shape and tightly align themselves against each other to form a compact ball of cells compaction. The morula stage occurs 3 to 4 days after fertilization, just as the early embryo enters the uterus.

 Blastocyst (Gr. blastos, germ + kystis, bladder). - After 2 to 3 days, the morula enters the uterus - Soon a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocystic cavity, develops inside it = blastocyst. - Its centrally located cells, the inner cell mass or embryoblast, is the embryonic part of the embryo.

 Implantation. - The process during which the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium, and subsequently embeds in it. - The preimplantation period of embryonic development is the time between fertilization and the beginning of implantation, a period of approximately 6 days.

 Gastrula (Gr. gaster, stomach). - During gastrulation (transformation of a blastocyst into a gastrula), a three-layered or trilaminar embryonic disc forms (third week). - The three germ layers of the gastrula (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) subsequently differentiate into the tissues and organs of the embryo.

 Neurula (Gr. neuron, nerve). - The early embryo during the third and fourth weeks when the neural tube is developing from the neural plate. - It is the first appearance of the nervous system and the next stage after the gastrula.

 Embryo (Gr. embryon).

- The developing human during its early stages of development. - The embryonic period extends to the end of the eighth week (56 days), by which time the beginnings of all major structures are present.

 Stages of Prenatal Development. - Stage 1 begins at fertilization and embryonic development ends at stage 23, which occurs on day 56. - The fetal period begins on day 57 and ends when the fetus is completely outside the mother.

 Conceptus (L. conceptio, derivatives of zygote). - the products of conception. - it includes the embryo as well as the embryonic part of the placenta and its associated membranes: amnion, chorionic (gestational) sac, and umbilical vesicle or yolk sac.

 Primordium (L. primus, first + ordior, to begin). -The beginning or first discernible indication of an organ or structure. - The terms anlage and rudiment have similar meanings.

 Fetus (L., unborn offspring). -After the embryonic period (8 weeks) and until birth, the developing human is called a fetus. - During the fetal period (ninth week to birth), differentiation and growth of the tissues and organs formed during the embryonic period occur.

 Abortion (L. aboriri, to miscarry). -A premature stoppage of development and expulsion of a conceptus from the uterus or expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it is viable- (capable of living outside the uterus). - An abortus is the products of an abortion (i.e., the embryo/fetus and its membranes).

 There are different types of abortion:

1. Threatened abortion (bleeding with the possibility of abortion) is a complication in approximately 25% of clinically apparent pregnancies. 2. A spontaneous abortion is one that occurs naturally and is most common during the third week after fertilization. - Approximately 15% of recognized pregnancies end in spontaneous abortion, usually during the first 12 weeks.

 3. A habitual abortion is the spontaneous expulsion of a dead or nonviable embryo or fetus in three or more consecutive pregnancies. 4. An induced abortion is a birth that is medically induced before 20 weeks (i.e., before the fetus is viable) by drugs or mechanical means.

 5. A complete abortion is one in which all the products of conception are expelled from the uterus. 6. A missed abortion is the retention of a conceptus in the uterus after death of the embryo or fetus. 7. A miscarriage is the spontaneous abortion of a fetus and its membranes before the middle of the second trimester (approximately 135 days).

 Trimester. A period of three calendar months during a pregnancy. Obstetricians commonly divide the 9month period of gestation into three trimesters. The most critical stages of development occur during the first trimester (13 weeks) when embryonic and early fetal development is occurring.

 Postnatal Period. The period occurring after birth.

 Infancy refers to the earliest period of extrauterine life, roughly the first year after birth. An infant aged 1 month or younger is called a newborn or neonate. If newborn infants survive the first crucial hours after birth, their chances of living are usually good.

 Childhood is the period from approximately 13 months until puberty.

 Puberty occurs usually between the ages of 12 and 15 years in girls and 13 and 16 years in boys, - during which secondary sexual characteristics develop.

 -defined by the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., pubic hair development, breasts in females, and growth of external genitalia in males). Puberty ends in females with the first menstrual period or menarche, the beginning of the menstrual cycles or periods. Puberty ends in males when mature sperms are produced.

 Adolescence is the period from approximately 11 to 19 years of age, which is characterized by rapid physical and sexual maturation. -The ability to reproduce is achieved during adolescence.

 Adulthood (L. adultus, grown up), attainment of full growth and maturity, is generally reached between the ages of 18 and 21 years.

 Embryology study of embryos Developmental anatomy field of embryology concerned with changes that cells, tissues, organs and body as a whole undergo from a germ cell of each parent to the resulting adult. Teratology monster deals with abnormal development (birth defects)

 Embryology - bridges the gap between perinatal development and obstetrics, perinatal medicine, pediatrics and clinical anatomy. - develops knowledge concerning the beginnings of human life and the changes occuring during prenatal development.

HISTORICAL GLEANINGS

ANCIENT VIEWS
Egyptian Sun God Aton = creator of germ in woman, maker of seed in man, and giver of life to the son in the body of mother. Indian Sanskrit blood + semen = kalada one day old embryo; after 7 nights = vesicle; after 15 days = sphere; after 30 days = firm mass; 90 days =limbs appear

 Greek Hippocrates Father of Medicine - take 20 eggs, incubate, open one by one until hatching bird like man.

 Aristotle - Founder of Embryology embryo arose from menstrual blood after activation by male semen. Talmud Jew believed that bones and tendons, nails, marrow in the head and white of the eye comes from the father (who sows the white), while skin, flesh, blood, hair from mother (who sows the red).

Middle Ages
Quran 7th century AD human beings are produced from mixture of secretions from male and female nutfa small drop organism settles in womb 6 days later. Constantinus Africanus of Salerno Drawing of fetus showed a preformed fully developed infant frolicking in the womb.

The Renaissance
Leonardo da Vinci accurate drawing of pregnant dissected uterus. William Harvey male seed enters uterus egglike substance embryo. Graaf observed ovarian follicles still called Graafian follicles.

 Anton van Leeuwenhoek used an improved microscope = thought that sperm contained a miniature preformed human being that enlarged when deposited in female genital tract.

 Wolff preformation theory proposed the layer concept zygote produces layers of cells. Theory of epigenesis devt results from growth and differentiation of specialized cells.

 Lazaro Spallanzani showed that both oocyte and sperm were necessary for initiating the development of new individual. - artificial insemination in dogs. Pander blastoderm 3 germ layers of embryo Etienne Saint Hilaire and son, Isidore studies of abnormal development Teratology

 Karl Ernst von Baer oocyte in ovarian follicle of a dog - two concepts: 1. corresponding stages of embryonic development 2. general characteristics precede specific ones. - Father of Modern Embryology

 Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory body is composed of cells and cell products. = embryo developed from a zygote. William His fixation, sectioning and staining of tissues, reconstruction of embryos.

 Robert G. Edwards and Patrick Steptoe IVF Louise Brown born in 1978 the first test tube baby.

Genetics and Human Development

Charles Darwin Origin of species variability important for evolution Gregor Mendel principles of heredity Flemming observed chromosomes in 1878. Eduard von Beneden germ cells have reduced number of chromosomes meiosis. Archibald Garrod discovered alkaptonuria Father of Medical Genetics

 Felix von Winiwarter first observations on human chromosomes 47 chromosomes. Theophilis Painter 48 chromosomes - widely accepted until 1956, when Tjio and Levan 46 chromosomes only 1956.

 Watson and Crick molecular structure of DNA in 1953 2000 human genome was sequenced. Lejeune 1959- Down syndrome 47 chromosomes. 1941 Sir Norman Gregg = unusual number of cases of cataracts and other abnormalities in mothers who had rubella in early pregnancy. Widukind Lenz and William McBride rare limb deficiencies - thalidomide

Molecular biology of Embryology

- recombinant DNA, chimeric models, transgenic mice and stem cell manipulation - Dolly sheep cloned in 1997 by Ian Wilmut using somatic cell nuclear transfer.

 -Human cloning: social, ethical, legal implications Human embryonic Stem cells pluripotential, capable of self-renewal, and able to differentiate into specialized cell types.

 The isolation and programmed culture of human embryonic stem cell hold great potential for the treatment of degenerative, malignancy and genetic diseases.