A New Paradigm for Understanding Ore-Shoots in Gold Deposits

Jon Hronsky Centre for Exploration Targeting Seminar 13 April 2012

Introduction
Grade is key to profit margin in gold mining Many deposits have an irregular distribution of grade (oreshoots) Much gold exploration increasingly focused at depth in known camps Therefore important to understand process controls on oreshoot distribution and their application to targeting A conceptual framework to help with this presented here These concepts also relevant to other hydrothermal ore deposits.

Schematic Plan Section - Peters (1993)

The Ore-Shoot Concept : A localised well-mineralised rock volume

Ore Shoots:
A general and long known empirical association with heterogeneities: What is the process meaning?
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Peters (1993)

Campbell (1990)

The oldest process model: Norseman shear-link concept of the 1930s

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Ore-Fluid Focusing: The Current Paradigm

Not commonly explicitly articulated Recognises (correctly) that mineralised rock volumes represent sites of anomalous ore-fluid flux Assumes these anomalous volumes represent localised more dilatant rock volumes embedded within a surrounding, larger-scale, less focused fluid flow system Assumes they are generated by dynamic syn-ore deformation Based above assumptions, assumes knowledge of structural geometry and inferred syn-ore stress field can be used to predict these anomalous dilational sites Assumes localised mineralised volumes hosted by structures such as faults and shear zones are intrinsically a property of these structures
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The Current Paradigm for Ore Fluid Focusing:

Localised volume of higher fluid flux embedded within a broader flow system
Ridley (1993)

Problem with the Current Paradigm: Lack of consistent predictive relationship between structural geometry and ore

Cracow Epithermal Gold Deposit

Mickelthwaite (2008)

Ore-Fluid Focusing: The Current Paradigm

Not commonly explicitly articulated Correctly recognises (correctly) that mineralised rock volumes represent sites of anomalous ore-fluid flux Assumes these anomalous volumes represent localised more dilatant rock volumes embedded within a surrounding, larger-scale, less focused fluid flow system Assumes they are generated by dynamic syn-ore deformation Based above assumptions, assumes knowledge of structural geometry and inferred syn-ore stress field can be used to predict these anomalous dilational sites Assumes localised mineralised volumes hosted by structures such as faults and shear zones are intrinsically a property of these structures

WRONG!

A New Perspective: Ore Shoots as Fluid Exit Conduits

Proposed that most ore deposits can be considered as forming in transient fluid-exit conduits, associated with the episodic rupture of over-pressured reservoirs at depth (Hronsky, 2011) Represent examples of self-organised critical systems Provides the processes key to understanding ore-localisation

Explains failure of current paradigm for predictive structural targeting of ore-shoots in hydrothermal ore systems

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A General Model for Ore-forming SOC Systems

Fluid Sink
Episodic focused energy and mass flux

Threshold Barrier
(need not be a physical seal)

Thermal Halo-produced by entropy dumped into environment

Transient Exit Conduit Fluid Reservoir

Slow persistent fluid flux

Fluid (Energy) Source

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Electric Charges Accumulate Slowly

Transient Rapid Breach of Threshold Barrier Threshold Barrier: Resistive Air

Ground

The Lightning Analogy for Ore-Forming Systems

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Ground

Transient Rapid Breach of Threshold Barrier Threshold Barrier: Resistive Air

Electric Charges Accumulate Slowly

The Lightning Analogy for Ore-Forming Systems

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Porphyry Cu Example

Fluid Exit Conduit

From Sillitoe (2010)

Fluid Reservoir
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Fluid Exit Conduits

Rock volumes that have been conduits for large amounts of fluid flux, usually over multiple cyclic events Zones of extreme crustal permeability Zones of localized intense fracturing Sourced from overpressured reservoir zone at depth (may be partly located within this zone) Conduits nucleate at local heterogeneities in reservoir They break their way up to the surface, taking the easiest path May re-use existing structures or fracture previously intact rock Fluid-pulse related stress changes large and overwhelm ambient stress field
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Vry et al (2010)

El Teniente: A well documented example of multiple, superimposed focused fluid exit events all using the same plumbing

Fluid Conduit Zones in Orogenic Gold deposits

(A: Mother Lode, California (Goldfarb et al. 2005) B,C: Bendigo (Cox, 2005)

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Favona North Epithermal Vein, Waihi

(Torckler 2008)

Examples of Fluid Exit Conduits

~100m ~200mm

New Holland: (Henson, 2008)

Section view
Fitzroy Fault and Au distribution (gold blobs): Image from Gocad looking SW? Strongly fault controlled

Kanowna Belle Example

(Henson, 2008)

100m

Image from: Carl Young

Ernest Henry IOCG deposit: Pipe-like breccia zone

(Cleverley, 2008)

The 1997 Umbria-Marche Earthquake as a Modern Process model

Documented by Miller et al (2004) Two ruptures of M 5.6-6.0 near the top of an evaporite unit, at about 6km depth. Evaporite unit known from deep (4.8km) petroleum drilling along strike to contain over-pressured CO2 fluids. Initial ruptures followed by a 30 day sequence of thousands of after shocks, including some > M 5.0. Modeling indicates a strong correlation between the propagation of a fluid pressure pulse from this reservoir and the distribution of the after shock swarm. Localised transient, post-seismic permeability associated with this fluid pulse has been modeled as 4 x 10-11m2; 105 to 106 times > than background crustal permeability at that depth (6km)

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Propagating Fluid pressure pulse: (after-shock swarm)

Main Shock Rupture Site

Overpressured Evaporite sequence (known from deep drilling)

1997 Umbria Marche EQ: Cross-section

Miller et al (2004)

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Fluids do not respond passively to structure : They create their own Pipes!
Modeled Changes in Coulomb Failure Stress post rupture no correlation with aftershock swarm

Modeled Changes in Pore Fluid Pressure post rupturegood correlation with aftershock swarm

1997 Umbria-Marche EQ Miller et al (2004)

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Brothers Volcano Kermadec Arc: Another modern example of a focused fluid exit conduit

De Ronde et al (2011)

The New Paradigm

Now recognise fluid-flow conduits as the primary element of ore-forming hydrothermal systems. Replace the historical structure-centric framework with a fluid-centric framework. Important concept: fluid conduits may be much more extensive features than the pre-existing structures which host them. A single fluid conduit may move between host structures as it propagates upward, depending on which pathway provides the path of least resistance. Fluid flow conduits may commonly follow quite torturous paths from source to sink, including right-angled bends in three dimensions.

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Conduit-focused rather than Structure-focused Targeting Perspective

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Elbow Bend Example: Emperor Epithermal Au deposit, Fiji

Ore-Fluid Flow

Cross-Section (Begg, 1996)

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Steep-plunging ore-shoot associated with loci of steep fluid flow pipe

Intersection Trace of the HW Shear

Shatter Shear
Flat-plunging Fluid flow pipe

Plan-section (Begg, 1996)

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Inferred Ore Fluid Path

Lepanto-Far South East Elbow Bend Example

Hedenquist and Taran (2009)

Copying the Komatiite NiS Approach: Find the Conduit then Find the Ore-shoot

Need to think of our ore-systems as a connected network from source to sink

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Flat lode systems need steep feeders somewhere!

Sunrise Dam example: Baker et al (2010)

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Controls on Conduit Localisation

Key control is rheological structure of rock mass above reservoir how easy is it for the fluid pulse to fracture itself upwards? Fault and shear zones effectively just another rock type Certain geometric patterns consistently favourable Lightning Rod analogy

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Fluid-pressure driven conduit development commonly prefers pipe-like volumes of more competent rock rather than pre-existing structures: Structures are important because they establish the rock geometry

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Source: David Groves

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Wallaby
(Miller, 2008)

(Syenite in red; Actinolite-magnetite-epidote-calcite alteration pipe (syeniterelated) bounded by dashed lines ; high-grade later gold lodes in green)

Repetitive Self-Organisation using the Same Rock Volume: Some Geometries must be Fundamentally Favourable!

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Three Key Depositional Processes

1. Pressure Reduction (fluid unmixing)
2. Surface substrate (ie fracture margin) character and availability

3. Fluid Mixing (at discharge site only!)

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Boiling Zone Control Epithermal Gold

Boiling Zone

Fluid Flow

Cross-section through the Honko and Sanjin ore bodies at Hishikari, Japan (Faure et al, 2002; modified after Ibaraki and Suzuki, 1993). The bonanza veins are depicted as thick black lines; they have a limited vertical extent and are closely associated with the unconformity between the underlying Shimanto sediments and the overlying Hishikari Andesites.

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Pressure controls Gold Grade in Porphyry Deposits

Murakami et al (2009)

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Base of Mineralization

FLUID FLUX

Approx Paleo-depth: 6-9km

Section through the Butte Deposit:

( ~3km of vertical exposure after restoration of Continental Fault offset) Note correlation between base of mineralization and lower limit of brine inclusions (ie evidence for phase separation as critical control on mineralization)

Rusk et al (2008)

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Interpreted Fluid Flow Conduits Au-Cu Centre: Low density vapour very saline brine

Peripheral Cu Zone: Denser vapour less saline brine

Barren Deep Core: Single Phase Parental Fluids

Deep Periphery: Single Phase Parental Fluids

Bingham Canyon Zonation in Cu/Au and Grade and Relationship to Ore Fluid Physical Evolution
(Landtwing et al, In Press)

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Campbell (1990)

Norseman: Local Quartz-Au association within conduit implies pressure is key process

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Pressure-related upper boundary to mineralisation?

Irarrazaval et al (2010)

Pressure can also bound the upper limits of Mineralisation

Low-grade spent-fluid zone

Base of Boiling Zone?

High-Grade Green-Leader Au-Telluride Ore-shoot

Interpreted main fluid flow conduits

Long Section No.3 West Lode, Lake View Mine, Golden Mile, Kalgoorlie
Clout (1989)

Multi-stage Fluid Unmixing may be Important

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The role of Surface Energy Effects and the Substrate

Evidence: Au grains are often closely associated with boundaries of gangue sulphide grains Au grains commonly at wall-rock margins to veins or associated with thin laminae of wall-rocks within the vein High-grade Au-carbon association Fine-scale (mm-cm) variability in Au grade associated with selective sulphide replacement of a magnetite bearing BIF Adsorption: process by which a liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid Champagne Pool, CIP examples Likely to be an important detailed control on high Au grades
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Barren

Au-ore

BIF-hosted Gold Deposit:

Note fine scale pyrite replacement of magnetite and associated Au deposition (photo from David Groves)

Champagne Pool Taupo Region, NZ

Several 100 ppm Au adsorpted on to amorphous orange As-SbS colloids from highly Au under-saturated fluids (Renders & Seward, 1989)

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Discharge Zones: The Optimal Site for Fluid Mixing

Surface - (boundary with hydrosphere or atmosphere)

Strata sink

Discharge zone

Discharge zone

Ore Fo rming

Ore Forming

Fluid feeder conduit

Fluid feeder conduit

Discharge into a Surface Sink

Discharge into a Sub-surface Sink

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Peters (1993)

Localised High-Grade Ore-Shoots within Ore-Fluid Conduits

In practice, both processes commonly occur together

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Campbell (1990)

Norseman Example: Pre-ore dyke geometry controls local ore-shoots within conduit a very common control in Orogenic Au deposits

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Uniform grade distribution dominates

Conduit Internal Morphology and links to grade distribution

(Fault/Shear zone associated)

Local High-Grade Shoots dominate

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Ore-Shoot Process Model: Mararoa Reef (Norseman) Case study

?
First Order control: Fluid exit conduit -intersection of (more brittle) mafic stratigraphy and cross-cutting u/mafic dyke swarm Third Order control: Local Dilational Zone -local deflection of conduit-hosting shear fracture, controlled by dyke intersections

?
Second Order control: Base of Primary Depositional Zone?

Campbell (1990)

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Practical Implications
Ore-shoots can be hosted by all pre-existing structures not just the latest syn-ore ones The age of the host structure is not necessarily the age of mineralisation A conduit that hosts one localised high-grade oreshoot volume is likely to host others Important to separate out controls at conduit scale from localised ore-shoots Exploration should focus down the plunge trend of the conduit not the localised ore-shoot Need to develop methods to map conduits where they are not ore bodies (alteration, stable isotopes?)
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 The key geological element for targeting is localised rheological heterogeneity (in 3D) If an ore-shoot stops at depth need to understand why bottom of primary depositional zone or end of local highgrade shoot? Shear zone associated conduits may host local zones of dilatancy and hence much higher-grade shoots stockwork zones will not and therefore be more uniform in grade Barren hydrothermal breccias may be low-pressure tops to ore systems Boiling zones may preferentially occur beneath more coherent cap-rocks
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END

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