UNIT 2

GROUP BEHAVIOUR

Defining Groups

Group(s) Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.

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Groups Dynamics

Group dynamics is the study of groups. It is also known as "group process. It refers to the understanding of the behavior of people in groups.

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Classifying Groups
Formal Group
A designated work group defined by the organizations structure. Informal Group A group that is neither formally structured now organizationally determined; appears in response to the need for social contact.

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Defining and Classifying Groups

Command Group A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager. Task Group

Those working together to complete a job or task.

Interest Group Those working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned.

Friendship Group Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics.
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Why People Join Groups

Security

Status
Self-esteem Affiliation

Power
Goal Achievement

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Stages of Group Development

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The Five-Stage Model of Group Development

Forming Stage The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty. Storming Stage The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict. Norming Stage The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness.
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Group Development
Performing Stage The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. Adjourning Stage

The final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than performance.

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Group Structure - Roles

Role(s)

A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Role Identity
Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role.

Role Perception
An individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
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Group Structure - Roles

Role Expectations How others believe a person should act in a given situation.

Psychological Contract
An unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from the employee and vice versa. Role Conflict A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.
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Group Structure - Norms

Norms Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups members.

Classes of Norms:
Performance norms Appearance norms

Social arrangement norms

Allocation of resources norms
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The Hawthorne Studies

A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western Electric Companys Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924 and 1932.

Research Conclusions:
Worker behavior and sentiments were closely related.

Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting individual behavior.

Group standards (norms) were highly effective in establishing individual worker output.

Money was less a factor in determining worker output than were group
standards, sentiments, and security.

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Group Structure - Norms

Conformity

Adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the group. Reference Groups
Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.

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Examples of Cards Used in Aschs Study

E X H I B I T 84

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Group Structure - Norms

Deviant Workplace Behavior Antisocial actions by organizational members that intentionally violate established norms and result in negative consequences for the organization, its members, or both.

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Typology of Deviant Workplace Behavior

Category Production Examples Leaving early Intentionally working slowly Wasting resources Sabotage Lying about hours worked Stealing from the organization Showing favoritism Gossiping and spreading rumors Blaming coworkers

Property

Political

Personal Aggression

Sexual harassment Verbal abuse Stealing from coworkers

E X H I B I T 85

Source: Adapted from S.L. Robinson, and R.J. Bennett. A Typology of Deviant Workplace Behaviors: A Multidimensional Scaling Study, Academy of Management Journal, April 1995, p. 565.

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Group Structure - Status

Status A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.

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Group Structure - Size

Social Loafing The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.
Performance

Other conclusions:
Odd number groups do better than even. Groups of 7 or 9 perform better overall than larger or smaller groups.

Group Size
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Group Structure - Cohesiveness

Cohesiveness

Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
Increasing group cohesiveness:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Make the group smaller. Encourage agreement with group goals. Increase time members spend together. Increase group status and admission difficultly. Stimulate competition with other groups. Give rewards to the group, not individuals. Physically isolate the group.
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Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Productivity

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Group Tasks

Decision-making
Large groups facilitate the pooling of information about complex tasks.
Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating and facilitating the implementation of complex tasks. Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the requirement that group processes be effective in order for the group to perform well.
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Group Decision Making

Strengths More complete information Increased diversity of views Higher quality of decisions (more accuracy) Increased acceptance of solutions

Weaknesses More time consuming (slower) Increased pressure to conform Domination by one or a few members Ambiguous responsibility

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Group Decision Making

Groupthink Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course of action.

Groupshift
A change in decision risk between the groups decision and the individual decision that member within the group would make; can be either toward conservatism or greater risk.

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Symptoms Of The Groupthink Phenomenon

Group members rationalize any resistance to the

assumptions they have made.

Members apply direct pressures on those who express doubts about shared views or who question the alternative favored by the majority.

Members who have doubts or differing points of view keep

silent about misgivings.

There appears to be an illusion of unanimity.

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Group Decision-Making Techniques

Interacting Groups Typical groups, in which the members interact with each other face-to-face. Nominal Group Technique A group decision-making method in which individual members meet face-to-face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion.

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Group Decision-Making Techniques

Brainstorming An idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives, while withholding any criticism of those alternatives.

Electronic Meeting
A meeting in which members interact on computers, allowing for anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes.

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Evaluating Group Effectiveness

TYPE OF GROUP Effectiveness Criteria Number and quality of ideas Social pressure Money costs Speed Interacting Low High Low Moderate Brainstorming Moderate Low Low Moderate Nominal High Moderate Low Moderate Electronic High Low High Moderate

Task orientation
Potential for interpersonal conflict Commitment to solution Development of group cohesiveness

Low
High High High

High
Low Not applicable High

High
Moderate Moderate Moderate

High
Low Moderate Low

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Functions of Communication
Communication

The transference and the understanding of meaning.

Communication Functions

1. Control member behavior.

2. Foster motivation for what is to be done. 3. Provide a release for emotional expression. 4. Provide information needed to make decisions.

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Elements of the Communication Process

The sender Encoding The message The channel

Decoding
The receiver Noise Feedback

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The Communication Process Model

Communication Process The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference and understanding of meaning.
E X H I B I T 101

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The Communication Process

Channel
The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the receiver.

Types of Channels
Formal Channels
Are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of members.

Informal Channels
Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organization. These informal
channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices.

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Direction of Communication

Downward

Lateral

Upward

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Interpersonal Communication

Oral Communication
Advantages: Speed and feedback. Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.

Written Communication
Advantages: Tangible and verifiable. Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback.

Nonverbal Communication
Advantages: Supports other communications and provides observable expression of

emotions and feelings.

Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or gestures can influence receivers interpretation of message.

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Intonations: Its the Way You Say It!

Change your tone and you change your meaning:
Placement of the emphasis Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? What it means I was going to take someone else. Instead of the guy you were going with. Im trying to find a reason why I shouldnt take you. Do you have a problem with me? Instead of going on your own. Instead of lunch tomorrow.

Why dont I take you to dinner tonight?

Not tomorrow night.

Source: Based on M. Kiely, When No Means Yes, Marketing, October 1993, pp. 79. Reproduced in A. Huczynski and D. Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour, 4th ed. (Essex, England: Pearson Education, 2001), p. 194.

E X H I B I T 102

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Three Common Formal Small-Group Networks

E X H I B I T 103

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Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria

NETWORKS Criteria Speed Accuracy Chain Moderate High Wheel Fast High All Channel Fast Moderate

Emergence of a leader
Member satisfaction

Moderate
Moderate

High
Low

None
High

E X H I B I T 104

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Grapevine

Grapevine Characteristics
Informal, not controlled by management. Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal communications.

Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it.

Results from:
Desire for information about important situations Ambiguous conditions Conditions that cause anxiety
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Suggestions for Reducing the Negative Consequences of Rumors

1. Announce timetables for making important decisions. 2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may appear inconsistent or secretive. 3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and future plans. 4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilitiesit is almost never as

anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy.

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Computer-Aided Communication

E-mail
Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for distribution. Disadvantages: information overload, lack of emotional content, cold and impersonal.

Instant messaging
Advantage: real time e-mail transmitted straight to the receivers desktop. Disadvantage: can be intrusive and distracting.

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Emoticons: Showing Emotion in E-Mail

Electronic mail neednt be emotion free. Over the years, a set of symbols (emoticons) has evolved that e-mail users have developed for expressing

emotions. For instance, the use of all caps (i.e., THIS PROJECT NEEDS YOUR IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!) is the e-mail equivalent of shouting. The following highlights some emoticons:

E X H I B I T 106

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Computer-Aided Communication

Intranet
A private organization-wide information network.

Extranet
An information network connecting employees with external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.

Videoconferencing
An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits face-to-face
virtual meetings via video links.
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Choice of Communication Channel

Channel Richness The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode.

Characteristics of Rich Channels

1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously. 2. Facilitate rapid feedback. 3. Are very personal in context.

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Information Richness of Communication Channels

Low channel richness

High channel richness

Routine
Source: Based on R.H. Lengel and D.L. Daft, The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill, Academy of Management Executive, August 1988, pp. 22532; and R.L. Daft and R.H. Lengel, Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design, Managerial Science, May 1996, pp. 55472. Reproduced from R.L. Daft and R.A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 311.

Nonroutine

E X H I B I T 107

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Barriers to Effective Communication

Filtering A senders manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver. Selective Perception People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. Information Overload A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individuals processing capacity.
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Barriers to Effective Communication

Emotions How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted. Language Words have different meanings to different people. Communication Apprehension

Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both.
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Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

Men talk to:

Women talk to:

Emphasize status, power, and independence.

Complain that women talk on and on. Offer solutions. To boast about their accomplishments.

Establish connection and intimacy.

Criticize men for not listening. Speak of problems to promote closeness. Express regret and restore balance to a conversation.
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Politically Correct Communication

Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals. In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive to how words might offend others.
Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired, and senior.

Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes it harder to communicate accurately.
Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.

Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome, postconsumer waste materials, educational equity, and
people of gender.

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Source: The Far Side by Gary Larson 1994 Far Works, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

E X H I B I T 108

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Cross-Cultural Communication

Cultural Barriers Semantics Word connotations Tone differences Differences among perceptions

Cultural Guide Assume differences until similarity is proven. Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation. Practice empathy. Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis.

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Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in Different Countries

Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in Different Countries

Communication Barriers and Cultural Context

High-Context Cultures

Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues to communication.

Low-Context Cultures Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.

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Highvs. LowContext Cultures