Nanotribology
Nanotribology
Nanotribology
measuring tools
deepaksubudhi456@gm
ail.com
INTRODUCTION
Nanotribology is a branch of tribology which studies friction
phenomenon at the nanometer scale (see nanotechnology,
nanomechanics). The distinction between nanotribology and
tribology is primarily due to the involvement of atomic forces
in the determination of the final behavior of the system.
Gears, bearings, and liquid lubricants can reduce
friction in the macroscopic world, but the origins of friction for
small devices such as micro- or nanoelectromechanical
systems (NEMS) require other solutions
The surface force apparatus(SFA),atomic force &
friction force microsopes(AFM &FFM) are widely used in
nanotribological studies
Surface Force Apparatus
• The surface force apparatus (SFA) is a scientific instrument and technique
pioneered by D. Tabor, R.H.S. Winterton, J.N. Israelachvili in the early
1970s at Cambridge University. By the mid-70's Israelachvili had adapted
the original design to operate in liquids, notably aqueous solutions, while
at the Australian National University.
• In this instrument, two surfaces are carefully moved towards and retracted
from one another, all the while measuring their interaction force. One
surface is held by a cantilevered spring, and the deflection of the spring is
used to calculate the force being exerted. This technique uses
piezoelectric positioning elements (in addition to conventional motors for
coarse adjustments), and senses the distance between the surfaces using
optical interferometry. Using these sensitive elements, the device can
resolve distances to within 0.1 nanometer, and forces at the 10–8 N level.
This extremely sensitive technique can be used to measure electrostatic
forces, elusive Vander walls forces, and even hydration or solvation
forces. SFA is in some ways similar to using an atomic force microscope
to measure interaction between a tip (or molecule adsorbed onto the tip)
and a surface. The SFA, however, is more ideally suited to measuring
surface-surface interactions, and can measure much longer-range forces
more accurately. The SFA technique is quite demanding, however, and
only a handful of labs worldwide have functional instruments.
Fig: Schematic diagram of SFA
:
Principle of the Surface Forces Apparatus (SFA):
The Surface Forces Apparatus (SFA) is an instrument that can
measure forces occurring between two curved surfaces. The two
surfaces are cylindrically curved and oriented such that the
cylinder axis are crossed at an angle of 90°. The shortest
distance, D, between the two curved surfaces can be varied by
moving the approach actuator by the amount, M. One of the two
surfaces is mounted on a compliant spring with spring constant,
k. When the surfaces are separated sufficiently, a motion of the
actuator will result in an equal change in surface distance; i.e.
M=D
Fig: Schematic represen
The situation is different when a surface force, F(D),
deflects the spring at closer distances and D and M are thus
no longer equal.
During an experiment one optically measures
D(M) to be able to calculate the external force, F(D)=k*(D-M).
A negative force means attraction and a positive force
means repulsion. When the surfaces are in contact, they
deform elastically to form a circular contact with a diameter
of several 10µm. In such contact, D may vary only little,
while the actuator continues to move. Then, the external
force (or load), F is increased roughly proportional to k*M.
Principle of the Surface Forces Apparatus (Contd.):
For the measurement, it is of utmost importance that M can be
controlled very accurately and reproducibly. A well-designed
mechanical approach mechanism is necessary to meet these
requirements.
•Common surfaces are 2-5µm thick sheets of mica, which are manually
cleaved and glued onto transparent cylinder lenses after evaporation of
a typically 55 nm-thick silver layer on the reverse side. The two silver
layers are mirrors comprising the white light interferometer.
Using Multiple Beam Interferometry (MBI), one can determine the
distance between the surfaces. To this end, it is necessary to measure
an optical zero when the mica surfaces are in direct contact. The
measurement of the optical zero is essentially a determination of the
mica substrate thickness.
Force measurement : SFA
crossed cylinder geometry of mica
sheets used in SFA is
mathematically equivalent to sphere
on flat surface contact
measurement of adhesion forces and interfacial energy can be
analyzed by JKR (Johnson, Kendal, Roberts) theory for large soft
objects, or DMT
(Derjaguin, Muller, Toporov) for small hard objects
JKR: DMT:
Fadhesion=3πγR Fadhesion=4πγR
A number of attachments have been developed for the
SFA, which allow one to apply and measure oscillatory or
linear motions in-plane and out-of-plane. The best known
example is a lateral-force attachment, which can be used
to study friction in the SFA.
Interference spectra are recorded automatically and
at high speeds. Up to 150 interference fringes are
tracked by the software and the distance is
calculated in real time. At maximum speed, up to
three distance measurements are made per second.
This allows the motion of the surfaces to be Fig: the extended Surface
monitored during adjustments and instrumental and Forces Apparatus (eSFA) with
thermal drift to be checked during instrument CCD camera, spectrograph and
equilibration. computer control.
For optimal conditions, the instrument is placed in an insulated enclosure that
provides high thermal stability in a range from -10°C to +70°C. Two temperature
sensors measure the temperature both inside the enclosure and inside the fluid
cell of the SFA during experiments. When the cover of the enclosure is closed, a
typical equilibration time of 10-16 hours is allowed before sensitive measurements
are made.
eSFA characteristics and
specifications
high instrumental stability (typical drift rates dD/dt<50pm/min)
precision temperature control with extended temperature range (typical
stability dT/dt~2mK/h, range -10°C to +70°C)
high-precision distance measurement using Fast Spectral Correlation (FSC)
Interferometry (typical distance resolution: 25pm, range 0-100µm)
full lateral scanning ability (lateral resolution ~1µm)
accurate and straight forward determination of the
point of closest approach (PCA)
measurement of refractive index of very thin films using
Fast Spectral Correlation (FSC) Interferometry
extended dynamic window (1 pm/s to 100µm/s)
full computer control for unattended batch-processing of repetitive
Working principle of eSFA
Automated measurements with the eSFA are typically performed at night,
without human presence
The eSFA control software (Acquisoft) allows us to program several different
experiments in advance with predetermined timing. Several loading/unloading
cycles (force-run) under various conditions can thus be programmed in
advance.
Already measured Acquisoft data files can be reloaded. They contain all
necessary commands to exactly reproduce any experiment or sequence of
experiments. The Acquisoft software has a modular architecture, which allows
one to perform an unlimited variety of different experiments (e.g. drift-
measurement, force-run, friction experiments...) in arbitrary sequence and
under any conditions that are instrumentally accessible.
Several minimotors inside the thermal
enclosure allow one to make fine
adjustments of the optics while the
enclosure remains closed
Light is coupled in from a 450Watt Fig: Schematic of the optics setup.
Xenon arc lamp or alternatively from a fiber
optic light source (not shown)
To minimize unwanted heating inside the thermally stabilized
instrument, IR components of the light are filtered out using two
dichroic mirrors in series. This cold white light is then directed through
a modified SFA3TM(Surforce, USA) where it is filtered by the
interferometer (back-silvered mica surfaces).
The emerging light is finally collected with an imaging lens and
directed into an imaging spectrograph. The spectrum is recorded with a
high-resolution CCD camera (5000 pixels, 7µmx7µm).
The pixel information is transferred to the computer where the
wavelengths of up to 150 fringes are determined simultaneously.
The obtained set of wavelengths is used to calculate distance and/or
refractive index between the surfaces. The numerical evaluation is
based on Fast Spectral Correlation (FSC).
The optical probe and the Point of
Closest Approach (PCA):
An important difference between automated and manual
measurement of interference fringes is that the automated
measurement is a local local measurement whereas the manual
measurement determines the average fringe wavelength over a
cross section of the flattened contact area. To better illustrate this
difference, we have added in the fig. below
Fig: Schematic comparison between the optical probes of eSFA and SFA.
Atomic force microscope (afm)
• The atomic force microscope (AFM) or scanning force microscope
(SFM) is a very high-resolution type of scanning probe microscope,
with demonstrated resolution of fractions of a nanometer, more than
1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit
The precursor to the AFM, the scanning tunneling microscope, was
developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in the early 1980s, a
development that earned them the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1986.
Binnig, Quate and Gerber invented the first AFM in 1986.
• The AFM is one of the foremost tools for imaging, measuring and
manipulating matter at the nanoscale.
The information is gathered by "feeling" the surface with a
mechanical probe. Piezoelectric elements that facilitate tiny but
accurate and precise movements on (electronic) command enable
the very precise scanning.
Fig: Block Diagram of Atomic Force Microscope
Working principle of afm
The AFM consists of a microscale cantilever with a sharp tip (probe) at
its end that is used to scan the specimen surface. . The cantilever is
typically silicon or silicon nitride with a tipradius of curvature on the
order of nanometers.
When the tip is brought into proximity of a sample surface, forces
between the tip and the sample lead to a deflection of the cantilever
according to Hooke's law .
Depending on the situation, forces that are measured in AFM include
mechanical contact force,Van der Waals forces, capillary forces,
chemical bonding,electrostatic forces, magnetic forces (see
Magnetic force microscope (MFM)), Casimir forces, solvation forces
etc. As well as force, additional quantities may simultaneously be
measured through the use of specialised types of probe (see
Scanning thermal microscopy, photothermal microspectroscopy, etc.)
Fig:AFM cantilever (after use) Fig: AFM cantilever (after use)
in the Scanning Electron in the Scanning Electron
Microscope, magnification Microscope, magnification
1,000 x (image width ~ 100 3,000 x (image width ~ 30
micrometers) micrometers)
•Typically, the deflection is measured using a laser spot reflected from
the top surface of the cantilever into an array of photodiodes. Other
methods that are used include optical interferometer, capacitive sensing
or piezoresistive AFM cantilevers. These cantilevers are fabricated with
piezoresistive elements that act as astrain gauge. Using a
Wheatstone bridge, strain in the AFM cantilever due to deflection can be
measured, but this method is not as sensitive as laser deflection or
If the tip was scanned at a constant height, a risk would exist that the tip
collides with the surface, causing damage. Hence, in most cases a feedback
mechanism is employed to adjust the tip-to-sample distance to maintain a
constant force between the tip and the sample.
•Traditionally, the sample is mounted on a piezoelectric tube, that can move
the sample in the z direction for maintaining a constant force, and the x
and y directions for scanning the sample. Alternatively a 'tripod'
configuration of three piezo crystals may be employed, with each
responsible for scanning in the x,y and z directions
•This eliminates some of the distortion effects seen with a tube scanner. In
newer designs, the tip is mounted on a vertical piezo scanner while the
sample is being scanned in X and Y using another piezo block. The resulting
map of the area s = f(x,y) represents the topography of the sample.
Force measurement : AFM
AFM Operation modes
imaging mode
contact mode
• repulsive forces
~10-9 N
Non contact mode
• attractive (van der
Waals) forces regime
Tapping mode
• cantilever is
oscillated at its
resonant
Frequency
• repulsive force
region, but touches
the
surface only for short
periods of time
Imaging modes
The primary modes of operation are static (contact) mode and dynamic
mode. In the static mode operation, the static tip deflection is used as a
feedback signal. Because the measurement of a static signal is prone to
noise and drift, low stiffness cantilevers are used to boost the deflection
signal. However, close to the surface of the sample, attractive forces can
be quite strong, causing the tip to 'snap-in' to the surface. Thus static
mode AFM is almost always done in contact where the overall force is
repulsive. Consequently, this technique is typically called 'contact mode'.
In contact mode, the force between the tip and the surface is kept constant
during scanning by maintaining a constant deflection.
In the dynamic mode, the cantilever is externally oscillated at or close to
its fundamental resonance frequency or a harmonic. The oscillation
amplitude, phase and resonance frequency are modified by tip-sample
interaction forces; these changes in oscillation with respect to the external
reference oscillation provide information about the sample's
characteristics. Schemes for dynamic mode operation include
frequency modulation and the more common amplitude modulation
In frequency modulation, changes in the oscillation frequency provide
information about tip-sample interactions. Frequency can be measured
with very high sensitivity and thus the frequency modulation mode allows
for the use of very stiff cantilevers. Stiff cantilevers provide stability very
close to the surface and, as a result, this technique was the first AFM
technique to provide true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum
conditions (Giessibl).
Imaging modes (contd.)
In amplitude modulation, changes in the oscillation amplitude or phase
provide the feedback signal for imaging. In amplitude modulation,
changes in the phase of oscillation can be used to discriminate between
different types of materials on the surface. Amplitude modulation can be
operated either in the non-contact or in the intermittent contact regime.
In ambient conditions, most samples develop a liquid meniscus layer.
Because of this, keeping the probe tip close enough to the sample for
short-range forces to become detectable while preventing the tip from
sticking to the surface presents a major hurdle for the non-contact
dynamic mode in ambient conditions. Dynamic contact mode (also called
intermittent contact or tapping mode) was developed to bypass this
problem (Zhong et al.). In dynamic contact mode, the cantilever is
oscillated such that the separation distance between the cantilever tip
and the sample surface is modulated.
Amplitude modulation has also been used in the non-contact regime to
image with atomic resolution by using very stiff cantilevers and small
amplitudes in an ultra-high vacuum environment.
Contact mode
Non contact mode
Tapping (intermittant) mode
Comparison of typical operating
parameters
Operating SFA AFA/FFM
parameter
• Australian National University, Research School of Physical Sciences
and Engineering
• The X-ray Surface Forces Apparatus: Structure of a Thin Smectic
Liquid Crystal Film Under Confinement" Science 24 June 1994: Vol.
264. no. 5167, pp. 1915 – 1918
• The x-ray surface forces apparatus for simultaneous x-ray diffraction
and direct normal and lateral force measurements" Review of
Scientific Instruments, Volume 73, Issue 6, pp. 2486-2488 (2002).A. D
L. Humphris, M. J. Miles, J. K. Hobbs,
A mechanical microscope: High-speed atomic force microscopy,
Applied Physics Letters 86, 034106 (2005).
• V. J. Morris, A. R. Kirby, A. P. Gunning, Atomic Force Microscopy for
Biologists. (Book) (December 1999) Imperial College Press.
• F. Giessibl, Advances in Atomic Force Microscopy, Reviews of
Modern Physics 75 (3), 949-983 (2003).